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Term Paper on Human Anatomy
Term Paper # 1. Introduction to Human Anatomy:
Human anatomy is a wide field of study, which deals with the structural organization of the human body. It is the lifeline and forms firm foundation of the whole art of medical science and introduce different varieties of medical terminology.
Anatomy forms the basis of the practice of medicine, leads the physician towards an understanding of a patient’s disease when he or she is carrying out a physical examination or using the most advanced imaging techniques. The ability to interpret a clinical observation correctly is therefore, the end point of a sound anatomical understanding.
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Observation and visualization are the primary techniques a student should use to learn anatomy. Although the language of anatomy is important, the network of information needed to visualize the position of physical structures in a patient goes far beyond simple memorization.
Term Paper # 2. History of Human Anatomy:
i. Greek Period (B.C.):
Hippocrates of Cos (Circa 400 B.C.) is the father of Medicine is considered as one of the founders of Anatomy. Parts of his collection are the earliest anatomical description.
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Herophilus (Circa 300 B.C.) is the “Father of Anatomy”. He was a Greek Physician, who first dissected the human body. He distinguished cerebrum from cerebellum, nerves from tendons, arteries from veins and motor from sensory nerves. Herophilus was a very successful teacher and wrote a book on Anatomy.
ii. Roman Period (A.D.):
Galen (Circa 130-200 A.D.) is the “Prince of Physician” practiced medicine at Rome. He demonstrated and wrote on Anatomy. His teachings were followed and considered as the infallible authority on the subject for nearly 15 centuries.
iii. Fourteenth Century:
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Mundinus (1276-1326) is the “Restorer of Anatomy” was an Italian anatomist and Professor of Anatomy at Bologna. He wrote a book “Anathomia” which was the standard anatomical text for over a century. He taught anatomy by dissection for which his text was used as a guide.
iv. Fifteenth Century:
Leonardo da Vinci of Italy (1452-1519) is the originator of cross-sectional anatomy was of the greatest geniuses. He was the first to describe the moderator band of the right ventricle. The most admirable of his work are the drawings of the things he observed with perfection and fidelity. His 60 note books containing 500 diagrams were published in 1898.
v. Sixteenth Century:
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Vesalius (1514-1564) is the “Reformer of Anatomy” was German in origin by birth and found an Italian University favourable for his work. He was professor of Anatomy at Padna. He was regarded as founder of Modern Anatomy because he taught that anatomy could be learned only by dissections.
He opposed and corrected the erroneous concepts of Galen and fought against his authority, thus reviving anatomy after a dead lock of about 15 centuries. His great anatomical treatise “De Febricia – Human Corporis”, written in 7 volumes, revolutionized the teaching of Anatomy and remained as authoritative text for two centuries.
vi. Seventeenth Century:
Willium Harvey (1578-1657) discovered the circulation of blood and published it as “Anatomical Exercise on the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals”. He also published a book on embryology.
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Other events of this century are:
(i) First recorded human dissection in 1638 in Massachusetts.
(ii) Foundation of microscopic anatomy by Malpighi.
(iii) Introduction of alcohol as a preservative.
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vii. Eighteenth Century:
Willium Hunter (1718-1783) was a London Anatomist and Obstetrician. He introduced embalming with the help of Harvey’s Discovery and founded with his younger brother John Hunter the famous Hunterian museum.
viii. Nineteenth Century:
In Edinburgh (1826) and Maryland (1833) dissection by medical students was made compulsory.
Warbunton Anatomy Act (1932) was passed in England under which the unclaimed bodies were made available for dissection. The ‘act’ was passed in America (Massachusetts) in 1831. Formalin was used as a fixative in 1890s; X-ray was discovered by Roentgen in 1895. Various endoscopes were devised between 1819 and 1899.
The anatomical societies were founded in Germany (1886), Britain (1887) and America (1888).
Anatomists of this century were – Astley Cooper (1768-1841), Cuvier (1769-1832), Meckel (1724-1774) and Henry Gray (1827-1861). The author of Gray’s Anatomy.
The term anatomy is derived from a Greek word – “Anatome” – meaning cutting up (Ana = structure, tome = cutting up). In Latin – Greek Anatome means “dissection”.
Dissection is merely a technique whereas anatomy is a wide field of study by using the technique of dissection.
Anatomy describes the theatre in which action takes place – means – anatomy is to physiology as Geography is to History.
In ancient days anatomy was studied mainly by dissection. But now a day’s scope of modern anatomy has become very wide and now it is studied by all possible methods which clarify and enlarge the boundaries of anatomical knowledge.
Term Paper # 3. Sub Divisions of Human Anatomy:
It depends on the different methods by which we study the structure of human body, helping us in reaching correct diagnosis in patients and treating their diseases, for example –
I. Cadaveric Anatomy:
Study is done on dead bodies – cadavers – by dissecting different parts of human body with the help of naked eye called “Gross Anatomy” or Macroscopic Anatomy.
This can be done by one of the two approaches:
i. Regional Anatomy:
Body is studied in parts means regions like upper limb, lower limb, thorax, abdomen, head and neck and brain.
ii. Systemic Anatomy:
Body is studied system wise, for example:
(a) We study all bones of the body – called skeletal system – under heading of osteology.
(b) Study of muscular system – Myology.
(c) Study of vascular system – Angiology.
(d) Study of articulatory system – Arthrology or Syndesmology.
(e) Study of nervous system – Neurology.
(f) Pulmonology.
(g) Study of digestive system – Gastrology.
(h) Study of urogenital system – Urology, Gynaecology.
(i) Study of endocrine system – Splanchnology.
(j) Locomotor system – includes – osteology, arthrology and myology.
II. Living Anatomy:
Study is done on living human being by using different techniques, for example:
i. Inspection:
It is done with the help of eyes; here we inspect whole human being – in form of facial expression, gait and posture etc.
ii. Palpation:
It is done with the help of palm and fingers – we feel the lump, its consistency and tenderness.
iii. Percussion:
It is done with the help of fingers to know the different type of sounds produced in different situations, e.g., cystic, solid lesion etc.
iv. Auscultation:
It is done with the help of stethoscope – we listen different types of respiratory, heart and bowel sounds.
v. Endoscopy:
It is done with help of endoscopes, e.g., bronchoscopy, gastroscopy, sigmoidoscopy, cystoscopy etc.
vi. Radiography:
We take the help of X-rays – plain and contrast.
vii. Electromyography:
We study the electrical waves produced by action of tissues, e.g., E.C.G., E.E.G. etc.
III. Embryology or Developmental Anatomy:
Here we study prenatal and postnatal developmental changes in an individual. The developmental history is called ontogeny. The evolutionary history on the other hand is called phylogeny.
IV. Histology (Microscopic Anatomy):
We study the different tissues and their structure with the help of microscope.
V. Surface Anatomy (Topographic Anatomy):
It is the study of deeper part of the body in relation to the skin surface. It is helpful in clinical practice and surgical operations.
VI. Radiographic Anatomy:
It is the study of deeper organs by plain and contrast radiography.
VII. Comparative Anatomy:
It is the study of anatomy of the other animals and compares them to explain the changes in the form, structure and function of different parts of the human body.
VIII. Physical Anthropology:
It deals with the external features and measurements of different races and groups of people and with the study of the prehistoric remains.
IX. Applied Anatomy (Clinical Anatomy):
It deals with the application of the anatomical knowledge to the medical and surgical practice.
X. Experimental Anatomy:
It is the study of the factors, which influence and determine the form, structure and function of different parts of the body.
Term Paper # 4. Anatomical Nomenclature of Human Anatomy:
Galen (2nd century) wrote his book in Greek, and Vesalius (16th century) did it in Latin. Most of the anatomical terms, therefore are either in Greek or Latin. In 1895, the German Anatomical Society held a meeting in Basle and approved a list of about 5000 terms known as Basle Nomina Anatomica (BNA).
The following six rules were laid down to be followed strictly:
i. Each part shall have only one name.
ii. Each term shall be in Latin.
iii. Each term shall be as short and simple as possible.
iv. The terms shall be merely memory signs.
v. Related terms shall be similar, e.g., Femoral Artery, Femoral Vein and Femoral Nerve.
vi. Adjectives shall be arranged as opposites, e.g., Major and Minor, Superior and Inferior, Anterior and Posterior, Lateral and Medial etc.
The drafts on Nomina Histologica and Nomina Embryologica prepared by the subcommittee of the International Anatomical Nomenclature Committee (IANC) were approved in a plenary session of the Eleventh International Congress of Anatomists held in Leningrad in 1970.