Modern PI is normally associated with B. F. Skinner, the Harvard behavioral psychologist.

While there were a number of programmed precursors to Skinner’s method of programming, it was his influence which created the PI phenomenon of the 1950’s and 1960’s. His involvement is usually traced to his famous 1954 professional address, “The Science of Learning and the Art of Learning,” in which he decried the traditional classroom instruction as being too aversive, too large, too negative, and improperly sequenced. His solution to these problems was linear programmed instruction.

Unlike Presser’s “adjunct” programming, designed to supplement regular course study, Skinner’s linear teaching programs were designed to replace traditional courses of study i.e. to function as an instructor for users with no prior knowledge of a subject. Skinner’s PI required the user to construct an answer by filling in a blank with the correct response, rather than to select one of four options as correct as in Presser’s machine.

Filling in a blank is a recall type of learning because the user has to recall the answer from memory rather than merely recognizing it as in multiple choices. After filling in the blank, the user compares his or her answer with the correct one.

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The characteristics were designed by Skinner to overcome the classroom limitations stated above. Specifically, users learn without aversive threats, they work one step at a time, from simple to hard, they work at their own pace, and they are frequently reinforced for their responses.

Skinner’s ideas regarding PI may not have been taken very seriously had it not been for the acute shortage of teachers in the 1950’s. This situation forced many educators to consider using PI as an alternative teaching method. The use PI grew until the early 1960’s, when low-quality programs flooded the educational market and gave many educators a negative impression of PI that lasted until the early 1970’s.

The most frequent complaints against the Skinnerian form of linear programming were that it was boring and monotonous; especially for capable users and that the level of learning being supported was rote and meaningless. Although many programs were challenging and of high quality, the complaints were often justified. It is easier to publish poor programs than properly developed, thoughtful programs as is evidenced by the bulk of drill-and-practice microcomputer programs being marketed today.