Get complete information on the Provincial Administration of Mughal Empire

Get complete information on the Provincial Administration of Mughal Empire

According to Sir Jadunath Sarkar, “The Administrative agency in the Provinces of the! Mughal Empire was an exact miniature of that of the Central Government.” The number of provinces varied from time to time. In the time of Akbar, their number was 15. In the time of Jahangir there were 17 provinces. The number increased to 22 in the time of Shahjahan. In the time of Aurangzeb, the number was 21 only.

Under Akbar, there were at first 12 provinces, viz., Kabul, Punjab, Multan, Delhi, Agra, Avadh, Allahabad, Bihar, Bengal, Malwa, Ajmer and Gujarat. After the conquest of the Deccan, three more provinces were created, viz., Berar, Khandesh and Ahmednagar (later on known as Daultabad). It was during the reign of Jahangir that Orissa was created a separate province out of Bengal.

Under Shah Jahan, Kashmir was carved out of Kabul, Sindh out of Multan and Bidar out of Ahmednagar. Aurangzeb added Bijapur and Golcunda as new provinces. For some time, Qandhar was a separate province under the Mughals but it was lost to Persia in 1648.

Subedar or Nizam

The head of the province was known as the Sahib-i-Subah, Subedar or Nazim. He was assisted by the Diwan, Bakshi, Faujdar, Kotwal, Qazi, Sadar, Amil, Bitikchi, Potdar or Khizandar, Waqa-i-Navis, Qanungo and Patwari. Provinces were divided into Sarkars and Parganas.

All the administration of the province was centralised at the capital town. The Mughals were essentially an urban people and no wonder they neglected the villagers. Village life was dreaded by them as a punishment. Villages were left free and were not interfered with so long as there was no violent crime or defiance of royal authority.

The Subahdar possessed both civil and military authority. He was the representative of the king in the Province. He held his court but could not sit in the Jharoka. He could not declare war or make peace without the permission of the Emperor. He heard appeals from the decisions of the Qazis and Mir Adils, but he could not inflict capital punishment without the approval of the Emperor.

He was in charge of the provincial forces. It was his duty to maintain order, to help the smooth and successful collection of revenue and to execute the royal decrees and regulations sent to him. He could not dismiss or appoint the Diwan and Sadar. He was not to interfere in the religious matters. He was to punish rebellious zamindars and lawless men. He was to send reports regarding the state of affairs in his Province. He was to encourage the peasants to improve agriculture. He was to help the Shaikhs and Qazis.

The Subahdars were transferred after intervals of two or three years. It was feared that if they continue to work at one place for a long time, they might abuse their powers or become independent. In spite of this, the governors were cruel and rapacious.

In some cases, they were punished by the Emperor for their mistakes or omission and commission. The long distances from the capital of the Empire and the medieval means of transport and communication, enabled the governors to do whatever they pleased in their provinces.

Diwan

The Provincial Diwan was the second officer in the province. He was also the rival of the Subahdar. Both the Subahdar and Diwan were to act as a check on each other. The Provincial Diwan was selected by the Imperial Diwan or Diwan-i-Ashraf. It was his duty to carry out the orders of the Imperial Diwan and also to keep himself in touch with him.

He was to collect revenue, try revenue cases and improve cultivation. He had control over the purse of the province and no payment could be made without his sanction. He was required to co-operate with the Subahdar in the administration of the province. If there was a difference of opinion between the Subahdar and the Diwan, the matter was referred to the Emperor.

The letter of appointment of the Diwan charged him with the following duties: “Casuse the extension of cultivation and habitation in the villages. Watch over Imperial treasury that nobody may draw any money without due warrant. When due money is paid into the treasury from the chests of the fotahdars and other sources, give receipts (Qabz-ul-Wasul) to their agents. See that no official (Amil) extracts any forbidden cuss (Abwab).

“At the end of every agricultural season, ascertain from the original rough papers (i.e., first notes) the extortions and speculations of the Amils, and recover for the Imperial treasury whatever may be due from them on this account. Report bad or dishonest Amils to Government (i.e., to the High Diwan) so that better men may be appointed to replace them.”

“If any Amil has let arrears (of revenue) accumulate for many years, you should collect the due amount from the village in question by easy installments at the rate of 5 per cent every season.”

“The tamari loan given last year by Government should be realized in the first season of the present year. If they fail to pay, or delay payment, Government will compel the Diwan and the Amin to make good the amount.”

“Send the papers of your department to the imperial record office according to the regulations.”

Faujdar

Faujdar’s were appointed to help the Subahdar. They were put in charge of important sub­divisions of the province. Their appointment and dismissal was in the hands of the Subahdar. They were commanders of the provincial troops. They helped the Subahdar to maintain law and order in the country and punish the rebellious zamindars. They were also to help the Amils in their work of revenue collection.

According to Sir Jadunath Sarkar, “The Faujdar was only the commander of a military force stationed in the country to put down smaller rebellions, disperse or arrest robber-gangs, take cognizance of all violent crimes, and make demonstrations of force to over-awe opposition to the revenue authorities or the criminal judge or the censor.”

Sadar

He was appointed by the Central Government and his main duty was to supervise the Sayurghals or rent-free lands granted for religious and charitable purposes. He had a separate office of his own. He was more independent than the Diwan. He was a man of piety and learning. He could grant lands and allowances on his own initiative. He was respected by the people on account of his qualities of head and heart. Qazis and Mir Adils worked under him.

Amil

Amil was a revenue collector and had many duties to perform. He was required to deal very effectively with the rebellious Zamindars even if that led to the land remaining uncultivated. It was his duty to see that the quality of land improved and waste land was brought under cultivation. He was to see that the work of measurement or Paimaish of the land was done rightly. He was to supervise the work of revenue collection.

He was to examine the registers of the Karkuns, Muquddams and Patwaris. He was required to submit monthly reports concerning the condition «of the people. He was to tour the country with a view to acquaint himself with the conditions of the people.

Bakshi

Bakshi was another important official of provincial administration. He was responsible for the recruitment, organisation and maintenance of army in the province. The Bakshi was generally appointed by the king on the recommendation of Mir Bakshi, the chief military official at the centre.

Bitikchi

He acted as a check on the Amil and enjoyed the same status as that of the Amil. He prepared abstracts of revenue every season and was required to send an annual report to the Central Government; He had to supervise the work of Qanungos. He was required to be a good writer and a skilful accountant. He was also required to be a master of the customs and regulations of his district.

Potdar or Khizandar

His duty was to receive money from the cultivators and keep the same in the treasury. Whenever a payment was made to him, he issued receipts and kept their account. He was not to make uny payment without a voucher signed by the Diwan. There were other officers as the Karkuns, Qanungos and Patwaris. Patwari was in charge of the revenue accounts. The duty of Muquddam was to keep order in the village and help the officials of the Government in the collection of state duties.

Kotwal

The duties of the Kotwal are given in detail in the Aini-i-Akbari. Essentially, he was a police officer of the town, but he enjoyed magisterial powers in certain cases. He was responsible for the maintenance of law and order in the city. He kept watch at night and patrolled the city. He kept a register of houses and frequented buildings. He examined weights and measures and discovered thieves.

He made a list of property of those who had no heir and also of the dead and missing persons. He was to see that no woman was burnt against her will. He was to employ spies from among the obscure residents and observe the income and expenditure of the various classes.

According to Manucci, “It is his business to stop the distillation of spirits. He has to see that there were no public women in the town or anything else forbidden. He obtains information about all that goes on so as to be able to send in his report (to the ruler). For this purpose, there are throughout the Mughal Empire certain persons known as house- scavengers.

These men are under obligation to go twice a day to clean out every house and they tell the kotwal all that goes on. He is subordinate to the Qazi and receives orders from him. Under his orders, there are a considerable number of bodies of cavalry and a great number of foot-soldiers. In every ward, there is a horsemen and 20 to 30 foot-soldiers who in a sort of way go to the rounds.”

According to Abul Fazal, “The appropriate person for this office should be vigorous, experienced, active, deliberate, patient, astute and humane.”

The Aini-i-Akbari describes his duties in these words: “Through his night patrolling and watchfulness, the citizens should enjoy the repose of security and the evil-disposed lie in the slough of non-existence. He should keep a register of houses, and frequent roads, and engage the citizens in a pledge of reciprocal assistance, and bind them to a common participation of weal and woe.

He should form a quarter by union of a certain number of habitations, and name one of his intelligence subordinates for its superintendence and receive a daily report under his seal, of those who enter or leave it, and of whatever events therein occur. And he should appoint as a spy one among the obscure residents with whom the others should have no acquaintance, and keeping their reports in writing employ a heedful scrutiny. He should minutely observe the income and expenditure of the various classes of men, and by a refined address make his vigilance reflect honour on his administration.

Of every guild of artificers he should name one as a guild master, and another as a broker, by whose intelligence the business of purchase and sale should be conducted. From these he should require frequent reports. When the night is little advanced he should prohibit people from entering or leaving the city. He should set the idle to some handicraft. He should discover thieves and the goods they have stolen, or be responsible for the loss.

He should so direct and no one shall demand a tax or cuss save on arms, elephants, camels, cattle, sheep, goats and merchandise. He should suffer no alternation in the value of the gold and silver coin of the realm, and its diminution by wear in circulation he shall recover to the value of the deficiency. He should use his discretion in the reduction of prices, and not allow purchases to be made outside the city.

The rich shall not take beyond what is necessary for their consumption. He shall examine the weights and make the ser not more or less than 30 dams. In gaz, he should permit neither decrease nor increase and restrain the people from the making dispensing, buying or selling of wine; but refrain from invading the privacy of domestic life. Of the property of a deceased or missing person, who may have no heir, be shall make an inventory and keep it in his care.

He should appoint persons of respectable character to supply the public water-courses; and prohibit women from riding horses. He should direct that no ox or buffalo or horse or camel be slaughtered and forbid their restriction of personal liberty and the selling of slaves. He should not suffer a woman to be hurt against her inclination nor a criminal deserving of death to be impaled, nor anyone to be circumcised under the age of twelve.”

According to Sir Jadunath Sarkar, “The Kotwal should check the number of persons in the prison and ascertain answers of the charges against them. Then he should report to his official superior the cases of those prisoners whom he considers innocent and secure their liberation. In the case of the guilty persons who could pay, he could take orders for reacting suitable fines from them and then release them. In the case of penniless prisoners the Kotwal should report and take action as commanded.

A statement of all the cases of those deserving to be kept in prison should be sent to the officers of Canon Law, and the orders passed by the latter over their signatures should be carried out by the Kotwal. In the case of those deserving death, the Kotwal should, through proper officers, freely state their cases to the judge on the day of trial, receive the Qazi’s signed sentence of death and execute the sentence.”

Waqai-Navis

He was the recorder of occurrences in the province. It was with the help of this person that the Central Government was kept in touch with the affairs of the provinces. The following passage which is in the form of an advice to a Waqai-Navis gives some idea of his duties: “Report the truth lest the Emperor should leam facts from another source and punish you. Your work is delicate; both sides have to be served. Deep sagacity and consideration should be employed so that both the Shaikh and the Book may remain in their proper places.

In the wards of most of the high officers, forbidden things are done. If you report them truly, the officers will be disgraced. If you do not; you yourself will be undone. Therefore, you should tell the Lord of the Ward. In your ward forbidden things are taking place, stop them. If he gives a rude reply you should threaten the Kotwal of the ward by pointing out the misdeed.

The Lord of the Ward will then know of it. Although the evil has not yet been removed from the Ward, yet if anyone reports the matter to the Emperor, you can easily defend yourself by saying that you have informed the matter of the ward and instructed the Kotwal. In every matter, write the truth, but avoid offending the nobles. Write after carefully verifying your statement.

Sarkars or Districts

Every province was divided into many Sarkars or Districts. The Faujdar was in charge of the Sarkar. He to carry out the orders of the Governor and also keep himself constantly in touch with them.’

Parganas or Mahals

Every province was divided into many Parganas or Mahals. In every Pargana, there was a Shiqadar, an Amil, a Potdar and a few Bitikchis. Shiqdar was in charge of the administration of the Pargana. His duty was to maintain law and order within his jurisdiction.

The Kotwal was the chief administrator of a town and his duties have already been explained above. Every city was divided into many wards or mohallas. It has already been pointed out that neither the Provincial Government nor the Central Government interfered with the people living in villages. Every village was considered to be an autonomous commonwealth.