What are the four phases of the Thirty Years War?

The Thirty Years War which soon as­sumed the shape of an international struggle passed through four phases.

Phase 1

During the first phase the Protestant Bohemians rebelled against the Catholic Hapsburg King Ferdinand following abandonment of policy of religious toleration. The Bohemians invited the Calvinist head of the Protestant League to rule them. Ferdinand II entered into an alliance with Maximilian and sent his imperial forces.

He also procured the sup­port of Spanish troops from his cousin, the Hapsburg king of Spain. In the mean while the Protestants of Bohemia secured the support of Frederick of Palatine and the head of the Protestant Union. In the Battle of White Hill which ensued the army of Frederick was completely routed by the united forces of the Emperor and the League under Tilly. After his defeat Frederick was driven into exile and his dominions as well as elec­toral officer were handed over the Maximilian of Bavaria.

Thus Protes­tantism was almost crushed in Bohemia and the Catholics emerged trium­phant. The loss of territory by Frederick greatly roused the Lutherans who had so far remained indifferent.

Even the Protestant Monarchs of Europe felt concerned over the distress of Frederick and James I of England even took certain steps to re-instate Frederick (his son-in-law) in his dominions. However, he did not meet with any success. As a result now onwards the other European powers began to watch the contest with keen interest.

Phase 2

During the second phase the conflict took place between the Lutheran King of Denmark and Ferdinand II. Alarmed by the success of Ferdinand against Bohemia, the Protestant states of North Germany concluded an alliance with the King of Denmark and declared war. The King of Denmark joined hands with the Protestants because he wanted to gain additional German territory and thwart Hapsburg ambitions.

How­ever, Ferdinand II’s forces proved too strong for them. The Danish army was routed Luther and the whole of Northern Germany was subdued. Wallenstein, a general of the Catholic League, thereafter overran Denmark until he was checked at Stralsund in 1629.

This setback of Wallenstein encouraged Christian IV to renew his efforts, but he suffered a defeat and was forced to sign Peace of Lubeck in 1629. As a result of this treaty he received back his lost territories in return for a promise to abstain from further interference in the German affairs.

Emboldened by his victory over Denmark Ferdinand proceeded to issue the Edict of Restitution in 1629 by which the Protestants were or­dered to restore to the Catholic Church all the ecclesiastical lands which they had taken possession of since the Peace of Augsburg.

He enforced the confiscation of lands through licentious soldiery of Wallenstein. As this act of Ferdinand affected most of the Protestants, even Lutherans also felt greatly disturbed. They sank their differences with the Calvinists and made a common cause against the Catholics. Thus all the hopes for a permanent peace were shattered.

Phase 3

After the second defeat of the Puritans, the Lutheran King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden jumped into the fray not so much motivated by the religious considerations but due to the hopes of extending his realm to the south of the Baltic. He was convinced that the occupation of Baltic ports by the emperor would be highly injurious to the Swedish interest.

Further lie felt that a military success against the Catholics could help him to realise the dream of a larger Swedish empire. Accordingly, Gustavus Adolphus landed in Germany with 13,000 very well disciplined soldiers. However, he did not get full support from the Protestants.

Despite this he succeeded in capturing the Bavarian capital Munich. It has been con­tended by scholars that Ferdinand II suffered a defeat because he had dismissed his great general Wallenstein. After defeat at the hands of Gustavus, Ferdinand II recalled his dismissed general and asked him to resume the command of imperial forces.

Another battle was fought at Lutzen in Saxony in 1632 between forces headed by Wallenstein and Gustavus Adolphus. Though Gustavus Adolphous died in the battle, his followers won a series of brilliant victories. The war dragged on till 1635 when a compromise peace was concluded.

Phase 4

During the fourth phase (1635-48), the war was waged by the Swedish and French against Germany. Before the peace between Sweden and Ferdinand II could be enforced, Cardinal Richelieu, the chief adviser of the French King, thought of fishing into troubled waters and making some gains at the cost of the Hapsburg dynasty. It may be observed that he was not motivated by the religious considerations at all, and only wanted to make the French monarchy reign supreme over all rivals.

Thus during the fourth phase the war assumed the character of a dynastic struggle between the Hapsburgs and Bourbons. During the struggle the Swedish army and German Protestants kept the Austrian armies busy, while the French concentrated against Spain. In 1643 French inflicted a defeat on Spain and then turned to Germany. For the next five years they persisted with fighting and tried to further weaken the power of the Hapsburg.

French generals Turenne and Conde scored series of victories over the Imperial army. Maximilian of Bavaria was also defeated. The French steadily pushed the new Emperor Ferdinand II back and compelled him to sign the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. This treaty constitutes a turning point in the history of Europe. It marked the end of the religious wars of Europe and ushered in an era of political and dynastic struggle.