Essay on the Cheras, Pandyas and Cholas

The three early kingdoms of ancient South India were those of the Cholas, the Cheras, and the Pandyas. Though we have references to the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas in the inscriptions of Asoka and Kharavela, and Megasthenes’ Indika, details are also gleaned from the Sangam literature.

When we talk of political history of the age, we usually refer to the political rule and conditions under these three kingdoms.

From the beginning of the first century ad or a little later, the Cholas were the main political power. Later, the Pandyas and the Cheras gained ascendancy. Much depended on the ruler’s person­ality and his ability to score victories over his enemies. The Sangam literature has casual references to events and persons of this period.

After the end of the third century ad, the Tamil country came to be divided between the Pandyas and the Pallavas. But nothing much is known about the Tamil country during the mid-sixth century bc to fourth century bc.

The earliest reference to the kingdom of the Cheras is found in the Asokan edicts, in the reference to Keralaputras. It was also known to Pliny and the author of the Periplus in the first century ad.

The Chera kingdom, on the western coastal strip above the northern boundary of the Pandyan kingdom corresponded, roughly, to the modern Malabar district and Travancore and Cochin regions. The western coast had some fine ports including Muziris, modern Cranganore, from where trade was carried on with the outside world.

It attracted the Roman merchants who, it is said, had built a temple of Augustus there. Ancient Tamil literature notes that the kingdom was divided into five sections (nadus). The capital was at Vengi or Karur whose location is controversial.

Perhaps, it was on the Periyar River or inland in Karur (Karuvur), the centre of the westernmost taluq, Trichirapalli district. The second location appears to be in order as (i) the mention of Karur in a Brahmi record of the third century bc found in the region; (ii) mention of Vani river near the Chera capital in Sangam literature; (iii) mention of Karuvur or Vanjimanagaram in a later inscription; and (iv) Ptolemy’s reference to Korura as the capital of the Cheras. Earlier it was believed to be at Tiruvanjaikkalam in Kerala.

The Cheras held many titles such as Vanavar, Villavar, Kudavar, Kuttuvar, Poraiyar and Malaiyar. Udiyanjeral (ad 130) was one of the earliest rulers, whom poet Mudinagarayar in Puram refers to as ‘Vanavaramban’ and ‘Perunjoran Udiyan’.

His son, Imayavaramaban Nedunjeral Adan (ad 155), is said to have subdued the ruler of the Kadamba dynasty and captured many Yavanas (in all probability, Greek sailors) before releasing them for a heavy ransom.

He won victories against seven crowned kings and was called Tmayavaramban’ he who had the Himalaya as his boundary. His younger brother ‘Kuthivan of many elephants’ extended the bound­aries of Chera kingdom.

One of his sons was the famous king, Pirakottiya Senaguttuvan (Red Chera, circa ad 180). The noted Sangam poet, Paranar, describes him as a victor in many battles, who went to North India to fetch a stone of the Himalayas to make an idol of the goddess Kannagi.

From the Silappadikaram it has been inferred that in all likelihood he played the leading role in organising the Pattini cult.

Five monarchs of the Udiyanjeral line ruled for probably two centuries. Monarchs of the collateral line, three in number, ruled for a further period of 58 years.

Their reigns need not have been successive as the kingdom of the Cheras was like a family estate and several princes were involved in political ad­ministration.

The heroes mentioned in the last three decades of the ‘Ten Tens’ and their ancestors, who must have been contemporary with the kings of the Udiyanjeral line, include Anduvan and Selvakkadungu Vali Adan, his son.

Adan’s son, Perunjeral Irumporai (circa 190 ad) subdued Adigaiman or Neduman Anji, head of the Adigaiman chieftains in the stronghold of Tagadur (Dharmapuri, Salem district). His cousin Kudakko Uanjeral Irumporai (c.190 ad) is the last Chera prince mentioned in the extant ‘Ten Tens’.

He probably defeated the Pandya and Chola kings. Another Chera prince, with the title of Mandaranjeral Irumporai, was captured by Nedujeliyan, his contem­porary on the Pandyan side, says the ‘Ten Tens’.

The Cheras seem to have faded into the background for a few centuries after this period (early third century).

The Pandyan kingdom was in the extreme south (modern Tirunelveli, Madurai, Ramnad districts, south Travancore and Nanjilnad). The capital was Madurai city on the river Vaigai.

The main port was Korkai, (Tirunelveli district) on the east coast at river Tambraparni’s estuary. Later, Kayal became the emporium of trade and Saliyur, farther north, was mentioned as a port.

The origin of the Pandya is obscure-some legends identify them as the descen­dants of the mythical three brothers of Korkai, who founded the Chera, Pandya and Chola kingdoms. Others connect them with the Pandavas of the north.

However, there are many references to the Pandyas:

(i) Katyayana refers to their kingdom in his com­mentary on Panini’s Astadhyayi.

(ii) The prosperity of the kingdom is mentioned in the Ramayana.

(iii) Ceylonese prince Vijaya’s marriage to a Pandya princess is referred to in the Buddhist Mahavamsa which also mentions a powerful Pandyan king who conquered Ceylon and ruled it between 43 and 29 bc.

(iv) A pearl found in Pandyakavata, a mountain in the kingdom, is mentioned in the Arthashastra.

(v) According to information furnished by Megasthenes, females ruled the Pandyan country.

(vi) The Second and the Thirteenth Rock Edicts of Asoka describe the Pandyans as independent and residing to the south of Asoka’s kingdom.

(vii) The Kalinga king, Kharavela, is said to have subdued the Pandyas, according to a reference in the Hathigumpha Inscrip­tions.

(viii) Pandinoi with its capital at Modowra (Madurai) and other centres of the kingdom have been mentioned in the Periplus and Ptolemy’s Geography.

The Pandyas gave themselves the titles of Kavuriyar Panchavar, Tennar, Seliyar, Marar and Valudi. Many of the Pandya chieftains were inde­pendent to a great extent.

Their early history (before the beginning of the 7th century ad) is vague as there is no proper historical evidence. But the Sangam literature men­tions the names of kings, without their chronology or achievements (the Silappadikaram and the Manimekalai are two such works bearing references.)

After the Sangam age, the Pandyas faded into the background and the Pallavas emerged.

Of the kings mentioned, Tondaiman Ilandiroiyan (ad 190) ruled at Kanchi at the same time as that of Karikala of the Chola kingdom. He is mentioned as a poet. There was also Nedunjeliyan, who ruled about ad 210.

Three of his predecessors are men­tioned in the Maduraikkanji of Mangudi Marudan. They were Nediyon (‘the tall one’), Palsalai Mudukudumi (who is said to be harsh on conquered territory and had performed many sacrifices) and Nedunjeliyan (who was given the title of ‘he who won a victory against an Aryan i.e., North Indian army’).

Nedunjeliyan of ‘Talaiyalanganam’-the scene of a battle between him and the Chera king, ‘He of the elephant-look’ conquered Milalaik-kurram from Evvi and Mutturruk-kurram. Nakkirar mentions a Pandyan prince, Ilavandigaippallittunjiya Nammaran in Puram 56.

The Pandya king Nedunjeliyan, who ruled in the period between late second and early third century ad, maintained at Madurai a flourishing literary academy or Sangam whose members pro­duced literature of very high quality.

Though there is a gap of nearly eight centuries between their visits, Hiuen Tsang (ad 640) was the second foreigner after Megasthenes who provided some information on the Pandyas.

He did not personally go to the Pandya country but obtained the details from his Buddhist friends at Kanchi. According to him, the country was called Malakuta or Malakotta, Buddhism was extinct there, Hinduism flourished and Digambar Jains were many.

The people were “black harsh and impetuous of mixed religions, indifferent to culture and only good at trade (of pearls particularly)”.

The Chola region was in the lower Kaveri valley, in the coastal plain between the norths Vellar.