What are the main causes of the American Civil War (1861-65)?

Various interpretations have been given regarding the causes of Civil War. However, it may be pointed out at the very outset that no war is produced by any single action. On the other hand, it is the result of com­bination of numerous factors. Some of these factors precede the war by many years.

This also applied to the Civil War of 1861-65. Usually the following causes are attributed for the outbreak of the Civil War. It may be noted that these causes have been attributed by different historians at different periods of American history.

1. The Devil Theory.

This theory regarding the cause of Civil War was very popular from 1861 to 1900. According to this theory the war was caused by the Southern and Northern devils.

Southern writers accused North of designs to destroy the South and its institutions. According to them the important factors which brought the war were the antislavery societies, anti-slavery forces in the Congress, increasing number of abolition petitions, efforts to deprive the South of its just gains in Texas and Mexican war, persistent reappearance of the Wilmot Provisions, John Brown’s activities in Kansas, North’s refusal to admit Kansas under the Lecopton Constitution, North’s refusal to obey the Fugitive Slave Act, attacks on the slave trade and slavery in the District of Columbia, organization of Republicans as a sectional party to ruin and rule the South, North’s refusal to accept the Dred Scot Decision, Lincoln’s radical anti-slavery and anti-Southern attitude. By citing all these in­stances the Southern writers try to impress that South was forced to secede and later fight in self-defence.

Likewise the Northern writers accused the South of designs to rule the Union or break it. According to Northerners, the South wanted to force the nation to accept slavery and protect it by national power not only in South but also in all territories, and finally in the North also. These writers repeat the factors which were advanced by the Southern writers with a reverse emphasis.

This includes constant attack on anti-slavery men, the gas resolution by which the Congress refused to receive petitions, plotting to add to slave area by annexing Texas and involving United States in a war with Mexico, plots of Douglas and pro-slavery Sensators to pass the Kansas-Nebraska Act, repeal of Missouri compromise, the Dred Scot Decision (often described as a conspiracy of slave-holders Supreme Court and the President), imposition of abnoxious Fugitive Slave Act upon unwilling north, smuggling of slaves into America and efforts to legalize the foreign slave trade, use of force by the Southerners in the Congress, Southerners’ scheming to split the Democratic Party at Charleston in 1860 to ensure Lincoln’s election as President so as to force the unwilling Southern Unionists to secede, manipulation of control over Federal Government by the Southerners and use of power for promotion of their interests by injuring the interests of the North.

The seizing of federal properties and finally firing on Sumter. The Northerners emphasize that North went to war to defend the Union and the constitution against un­provoked attack.

However, the above views are not accepted by the historians any more. It is now generally accepted that the war was not the result of conspiracy by any one group but a struggle between two groups with irreconcilable interests.

2. Constitutional Theory.

According to this theory the war was caused by different interpretations of the constitution on the question of State sovereignty. While North wanted to establish a highly centralized national government exercising vast powers, the Southerners stood for retention of power in the states, where the framers of the constitution had intended it to be.

The Southerners while deying slavery as a cause of war have stressed on the concentration of power at centre as the main cause of war. They contend that it was the Northern destruction of the Union as established by the fathers of the constitution and Northern violation of constitutional guarantees that forced South to withdraw from the campact.

The South justified its right to withdraw from the Union by pleading that the Union was a confederation of sovereign states, each of which had the legal power to withdraw from the compact at the pleasure. North on the other hand, denied this right of the South to leave the Union.

The Northern writers admit that slavery had been planted in the con­stitution, but it was contrary to the principles of the American democracy and hence extripaled. The evil nature of the institution of slavery greatly aroused the conscience of the Northerners. Many factors like publication of Uncle Tom’s Cabin, contact with fugitive slaves, political agitation of the subject, and denunciation of human bondage by the clergy, convinced North that extension of slavery must be checked and it be destroyed as quickly as possible.

3. Economic Theory.

After World War I a new theory regarding the causes of the Civil War was made popular which emphasized (he impor­tance of economic factors for the outbreak of Civil War. Lead in this direction was given by Charles and Mary Beard. This theory rejected the moral basis of slavery and instead emphasized that different labour system prevailed in South and North, and these posed a threat to each other.

While the economy of the South was mainly dependent on slave labour, the economy of the North was based” on non-slave holding farmer and wage earner. These two systems of labour were brought into clash due to west-ward expansion. Both North and South wanted their systems to get planted into the trans-Missouri frontiers, which ultimately resulted in clash.

It is also emphasized by this school that with the coming of the industrialization the old vedge between the agricultural South and industrial North was further widened. The new industrial interests demanded federal was opposed by the Planters of the South and farmers of the west.

However, with the growth of railroads the North-western farmers were won over by the North Industrialists against the South, and slavery was used as convenient tool to attack the South. In reality the opposition to the South was economic in nature.

4. Nationalism as a Factor.

According to yet another interpretation, the war was caused by the spirit of nationalism. While the sense of nationalism took hold of Northerners due to her economic growth and interests, the South was comparatively lacking in it. No doubt in South also there were groups like Unionists loyal to the American nationality, but the number of persons who were moved by feeling of Southern na­tionalism was by far greater than these people. There was also a sizable number of people who were not at all under the spirit of nationalism. Thus the presence of nationalism in North and South in varying degrees also created difficulties.

5. Social and Political Factors.

Some Voters have traced the seeds of war in the wide social and political differences between North and South, the Southerners held that the social order based on slavery provided hap­piness to both workers and upper classes. In South the entire economy was controlled by the Big Planters who formed a sort of Aristocracy. In short the Southern society was aristocratic in character.

On the other hand, North believed in social democracy and considered the existence of slavery as a big stumbling block in the way of achieving true democracy. Hence these writers hold that the Civil War was merely a struggle between Aristocracy and Democracy.

In addition the political structure at the federal level was dominated by the Southerners and they wanted to use “it to further their own interests. On the other hand, the Northerners wanted to overthrow the dominance of the southerners. They used ‘slavery’ as a convenient tool to further their political designs.

In fact, according to certain historians, slavery was not of any practical importance to either North or South. It was merely used by the politicians on the two sides to make political capital out of it.

6. Conflict between Romanticism and Materialism and other Inter­pretations.

According to another view the civil war was a conflict between romanticism represented by South and materialism represented by North.

In view of their different outlook a proper understanding between the two could not be possible. Certain other writers attribute the war to difference in climate, soil and geographic factors of North and South. Yet another interpretation of the Civil War is given by William Taylor, who held that the war was brought on by God as a “severe chastisement of the American nation for national sins.”

It will be noted from the above discussion that various causes have been attributed for the outbreak of Civil War in 1861. It is very difficult to hold any one factor responsible for the outbreak of the war. The war was caused by the combination of various factors. However, the immediate pretext was provided by secession following Lincoln’s election as President.