Some of the important terms of the treaties of 1858-60 were as follows

Some of the important terms of the treaties of 1858-60 were as follows:

Firstly, China agreed to open for foreign trade and residence, eleven additional ports stretching from Newchwang (in Manchuria) in the north of Hankow on the west and to Swatow in the South.

Secondly, the western merchantmen were given permission to ply the river Yangtse.

Thirdly, China conceded to the foreign missions the right to reside in Peking along with their staff.

Fourthly, the foreigners in possession of proper passports were allowed to travel anywhere in the interio^r

Fifthly, the Roman Catholic religious and benevolent establishment confiscated during the past century and a half were to be restored. The French missionaries were permitted to rent and purchase land in the province outside the treaty ports and erect buildings thereon.

Sixthly, the foreigners as well as the Chinese, Christians were given the freedom to propagate their faith.

Seventhly, the regulations governing extra-territorial rights were further elaborated. Under right of extra-territoriality, the subjects of the foreign countries were not to be subjected to the laws of China but to the laws and jurisdiction of their own states.

Eighthly, Kowloon, a piece of mainland opposite Hongkong was ceded to Great Britain.

Ninthly, China agreed to pay an indemnity to Britain as well as France.

Tenthly, the treaties legalized the opium traffic.

Finally, China ceded to Russia her territory north of Amur and gave her full title to the territory east of the Ussuri, on which subsequently Russia built an important port at Vladivostok.

To sum up it can be said that by 1860 China was fully, though grudg­ingly, opened to the westerners. They gained freedom to trade, to extra-territorial rights and a practical control over the Chinese tarrif system. They penetrated to the interior, the Yangste valley. The foreign merchants started taking active part in the politics of China.

They actively assisted the Chinese rulers during the Taiping Rebellion of 1850-64 when Hung Hsiu-ch’uan, a religious mystic and a capable general, ried to overthrow the Manchu dynasty and establish Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace with himself as head.

When the Imperial Government failed to crush his power, the European powers extended necessary support to the Manchu ruler and demanded further concessions from the emperor between 1857-60. The French and the British troops entered Peking and burnt the emperor’s palace. They forced the Emperor to open other treaty ports and permit greater missionary activities in the interest of China.

During the next few years the Europeans did not commit any aggres­sion against the Chinese Empire, despite the fact that the Chinese rulers continued to follow conservative and anti-foreigner policies.

This was made possible due to the leadership of Tzu Hsi, the dowager empress, who was the real power behind the throne. She shrewdly and unscrupu­lously crushed internal revolts and restored a measure of prestige to China. She firmly believed that China’s security lay in holding to ancient traditions and customs and therefore continued to pursue reactionary policies towards the foreigners.