Pavlov’s conditioning with food is an example of appetitive conditioning, where UCS has a positive value for the organism. However, classical conditioning can also take place using painful UCS, such as electric shock. The organism reflexively avoids the-painful UCS, and the avoidance response can be conditioned to a neutral stimulus (CS). Because of classical conditioning, we jerk our hands away before they are burned by fire, and we move out of the way of a rapidly approaching truck. We learn language and emotional reactions through classical conditioning. This simplest form of learning describes many forms of human learning, and carries a great deal of survival value for the individual.

Classical conditioning plays a key role in most of our emotional behaviors, particularly in the acquisition of fear. Phobias are irrational fears, which many psychologists believe, are caused by classical conditioning. Watson and Rayner, in 1920, conducted an experiment to induce fear of white rats in a little boy named Albert. Initially Albert was not afraid of white rats. He was given a white rat to play with. As he played with it, a loud noise was sounded behind his head. After only seven pairings of loud noise (UCS) with white rat (CS), Albert began fearing (CR) the white rat. Albert’s fear soon generalized to a rabbit, a dog and white furry objects. (It is now considered unethical to conduct such experiments). Probably this phobia (irrational fear) remained with Albert. Watson did not take any steps to remove this fear. Watson is criticized for this unethical experimentation.

Watson explained the acquisition of phobia as a case of classical conditioning. In recent years, however, an alternative explanation has emerged. The alternative explanation is based on observational learning. It suggests that phobia results from observing another individual’s behavior to a fearful object. For example, a young boy develops fear for dogs because he observes another child being scared of or bitten by a dog. A person reads about someone being afraid of high places and then develops the fear himself. Still then, psychologists believe that there is a classical conditioning component (e.g., memory and imagery) in observational learning.

Classical conditioning is practically useful in reducing and eliminating fears. Counter-conditioning is helpful for reducing fears. In counter-conditioning, the conditioned response of fear is weakened as the fear-provoking stimuli are conditioned to a new response incompatible with the CR (fear). Different forms of counter-conditioning are: implosive therapy, flooding, systematic desensitization, and aversion therapy.

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Implosive Therapy:

In implosive therapy, a person suffering from phobia, such as fear of public speaking, is asked to imagine the fearsome situation (CS), while the psychologist assures him that nothing terrible will happen (no UCS). After experiencing the situation in this way without any negative consequences, the person tends to become less fearful (extinction of the CR). The images and thoughts of fearsome situation gradually lose their capacity to elicit emotional reactions.

Flooding

In flooding, a person suffering from phobia, such as fear for high places, is forced to confront the fear-eliciting stimulus without any avenue for escape. For example, the therapist would help the person to walk onto a high place and would keep him there for a while under his careful supervision. Because the person does not experience any harm, he may eventually become less fearful of heights. His conditioned response of fear is gradually extinguished

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In cases, where the fear-provoking thoughts or stimuli are too painful to deal with directly (the person may faint), the procedure of systematic desensitization is followed. It is a progressive technique designed to replace fear with a relaxation response. The person is asked to set up a hierarchy of fearful stimuli. Then he is asked to imagine the least fearful stimulus situation while simultaneously relaxing. It continues until the person imagines the most fearful stimulus while at the same time learning to relax. The basic assumption is that fear and relaxation are incompatible. Hence, as relaxation is strengthened, fear is weakened (Wolpe, 1961).

Systematic Desensitization

In systematic desensitization, an attempt is made to establish a positive CR (e.g., relaxation) in place of a negative one (e.g., fear). In aversion therapy, a negative emotional reaction is established in place of a positive one. For example a person who abuses alcohol or any other drug (CS) may be given an emetic (a UCS that induces vomiting, the UCR) so that each time he takes alcohol, he vomits. Gradually he learns to hate alcohol. Aversion therapy consists of establishing a negative CR (e.g., vomiting) in place of a positive one (e.g., satisfaction resulting from taking alcohol). This technique is useful in treating drug-addicts.

Thus, classical conditioning, not only explains many forms of human learning, it also has many practical uses in reducing and eliminating unpleasant emotional reactions and treating the drug addicts.