Social Condition of India in 11th Century

Social Condition:

Though many ancient and existing social customs continued during the period 1000-1200 A.D. yet this period saw many significant changes as well. Generally in every period old elements continue to exist side by side the changes that occur. It is true that the pace of change is not that rapid in social and economic as in the political organization. Following significant changes took place in the Indian life during the Rajput period.

(1) Increase in the Power of one Section:

During this period power of one particular section in society increased who was known as the ‘Samants’, ‘Ranak’ or Raut (Rajput) etc. this section grew up through various means: (i) Some hereditary brave soldiers or chiefs had increased their sphere of power,, with the help of their armed retainers, (ii) Some were vanquished kings and their followers who had not been deprived of their land even after being defeated and thus they had kept up their influence in that limited area, (iii) There were those government officials, very large in their number who were assigned some land in the villages in place of cash as their salary and were given the right to collect revenue from that land. If we refer to them as Iqtadars of the Sultanate period, it would probably not be incorrect.

All the three categories used to wage constant mutual warfare in order to increase their spheres of influence. Except in cases of treachery or disloyalty, the king did not take away their land. Gradually the office came to be hereditary in case of all the above mentioned categories and they started considering the land as their hereditary possession.

In addition to revenue collection they took many other jobs also in their hands like dispensing justice in the village and started laying their claims on mineral wealth or wealth unearthed in excavations, without taking the kings permission they started further distributing their land for the purpose of faming.

They never engaged in agriculture themselves but derived a big income from land. Thus this section could be compared to the feudal class in the medieval European society. It weakened the power of the Central Government which made it easy for the Turks to defeat the kings. If we call the feudal sphere as a state within a state, it would not be incorrect. It led to the Indian villages becoming self-sufficient gradually. The standard of this feudal class was not very high but the peasants had to live a very low standard life.

The increasing influence of the feudal chiefs led to the decline in the power of the village Panchayats as well. Undoubtedly the feudal class afforded protection to the life and property of the people of their demains from those of the neighbouring feudal chiefs. Some good feudal lords took interest in the development and extension of agriculture as well. This so called feudal class of Rajput period did not undertake ‘Begar’ from the peasants nor did they perpetrate that atrocity on the peasants as was done by feudal lords in Europe over their serfs.

(2) Caste System and Changes Introduced in it:

During this period many sub castes and new castes were born within the fold of the traditional four classes of Brahmins, Kashatriya Vaishyas, and Sudras e.g., Brahmins came to call themselves Gaud, Vashistha, Kanyakubja, Saraswat, Kaushik etc. The Kashatriyas also divided themselves into many branches like Chandellas, Paramaras, Chauhans, Pratiharas, Gahadwalas etc. They Vaishyas started calling themselves Aggrawala, Vaishya, Khandelwal etc. It is said that the Sudras also came to be divided into two sub-castes viz. touchables and untouchables.

The first branch included castes like potter, barber, carpenter, blacksmith etc. They could come in contact with the Caste Hindus. The untouchables included the lowest castes and Chandalas etc. In this period we find a mention of two new sub-castes of Caste Hindu viz Rajputs and Kayasthas. Historians are not of unanimous opinion with regard to the origin of the Rajputs. Most Rajputs trace their origin to the mythological Royal families of Sun and Moon.

Some scholars consider their origin from the sacrifice performed by sage Agastya on the Abu Mountain. Some other scholars consider them to be the descendants of the Hunas and the Scythians while others regard them to be descendants of those Kashatriyas, Erahmins and Vaishays who worked under the kings or supported them through the periods. During this period we hear of another caste which we call the Kayasthas.

People belonging to Brahmins, Kashatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras castes who had worked in royal families we called Kaysthas, later on some castes were known as ‘Varnasamkars’ which were born of inter caste marriages. During this period some tribals were also amalgamated into the Sudra caste e.g., the Bhils.

Hinduism spread rapidly during this period. So many Buddhists, Jains etc. also got assimilated into Hinduism. Thus we can say that during this period the prevalence of writing one’s Gotra, intercaste marriages, occupational division etc. led to the birth of many castes sub-castes.

(3) Social Inequality and Untouchability:

The curse of untouchability started during later vedic period continued even during this period. A study of various smritis shows that the Brahmins came to acquire many special privileges. But due to the prevalence of mentioning of Gotra, even the Brahmins started considering some families as higher than the others. Some of the Brahmins forsook their assigned duties viz., study and performance of sacrifices and indulged in the occupations prescribed for the Kshatryas and the Vaishyas.

The social position of the Vaishyas underwent great change during this period. If one accepts the opinion of Alberuni then it appears that even the Vaishyas came to be classed among the Sudras now and even they were forbidden from reading the Yedas. The writers of Smritis of this period left all their predecessors behind in justifying the social and religious disabilities of the Sudras.

According to one such writer, Parashar, dining with the Sudras mixing with them, sitting with them or studying with them were activities which degraded even a high caste man. So much so that even the shadow of the Sudras was considered to be polluting in this period according to some references of the period. This rigidity of the caste system and the prevalence of the curse of untouchability proved very injurious for the country and the society.

The defective social organization of our country had its contribution in the victory of the Turks here. Because of this untouchability many Hindus got converted to Islam. The writers of this period considered handicrafts a lowly profession. It was true it definitely inculcated a feeling of hatred among the people for physical work which proved harmful for the country and the society.

(4) Marriages:

During this period child marriages became common probably because of the advent of the Turks. The Smritis of this period mention that parents used to marry off their daughters between the age of 6-8 years, women could remarry if her husband left her or he was importent. Smritis mention eight types of marriages of which the one performed according to the wishes of the parents was considered to be the best.

In royal families the custom of “Swayamvar” prevailed. Among the Kshatriyas “Rakshasee marriage” or forcible abduction of the girl was undertaken. Mostly marriages were arranged within one’s community only but exmples of inter caste marriages are also available. Often the commoners kept one wife only but among the royal families and rich practice of polygamy prevailed.

(5) Position of Women:

Historians differ in their opinion with regard to the position of women during the Rajput period. According to Iswari Prasad women enjoyed position of respect during this period. The Rajputs looked to them with respect and their women exhibited examplery courage during emergency.

On the other hand Satish Chandra writes that the position of women was not good during this period. Their mental level was considered low and they were expected to follow their husband’s advice blindly. Generally they were not considered worthy of trust and were under the control of their father, brother, husband or son.

It can be said that the position of women improved in certain respects and declined in others. Their position was high in as much as mother, sister and daughter they were respected in the family. The Rajput never hit women in the battlefield and respected her chastity.

In the beginning there was no purdah system but gradually it came into vague due to the influence of the Muslim culture. If the women were supposed to serve their husbands, even the latter were enjoined to follows a righteous path and obtain from anger, jealously and hatred as far as possible.

Women were permitted to remarry in the event of their husband leaving them or becoming a recluse or being impotent or divorcing them. In case of divorce husband had to bear the responsibility of his divorced wife’s maintenance women had a right to love their personal property? If her husband died without leaving any son than wife inherited his entire property.

In case of the death of the parents of an unmarried girl, if she had no brother she inherited all the property. In royal and feudal families practice prevailed of women themselves choosing their husband, the custom being called ‘swayamvar’. Ladies of high families had knowledge of Sanskrit and Prakrit languages. They were expert in writing poetry, stories, singing, dance, painting etc. From many angles the position of women was not high because:

(a) They were expected to become “Sati” on the death of their husbands. It seems that this evil practice increased because of ploygamy and increasing quarrels with regard to property.

(b) Common women had no proper arrangement for education.

(c) Among the warlike Rajputs, birth of a daughter was considered a sad thing though not every caste had this custom.

(d) The practice of Jauhar prevailed among Rajputs. When they got surrounded by their enemies and there was no hope for survival, then their women, to save their honour had to burn themselves collectively. This custom was known as Jauhar.

(e) Many a times the Orthodox Rajputs used to assassinate their daughter to save themselves from the trouble of marrying of their daughters.

(f) Many a women had to become prostitute because of fall in their character. Perhaps the evil practice of Devdasis started during this period.

(6) Narrow Social and Cultural outlook:

The social and cultural outlook of the people was very narrow in this period. On the basis of the fact that the subdivisions in the caste system were becoming more and more rigid; that Brahmins, Kshatryas and Rajputs held the monopoly of high posts, that the so-called low castes were being prosecuted, that numerous atrocities were being perpebated on the women, that fatalism was rampant and that people shirked from the exchange of ideas, it can be said that the Indian society was not progressive at the time.

Alberuni, who had come to India with Mahmud of Gazni, writes in his book Tehkikat-i-Hind that Indians are miserly in giving their knowledge to the others. Even amongst themselves they take full care of the fact that their knowledge not goes to other castes. With foreigners they are even more careful about the fact.

(7) Clothes and Ornaments:

Even the Rajput period, people wore cotton, woolen and silken clothes. Men wore Dhoti, Shirt, Pagri and Jacket. Women wore Saris, Lehenga, Chunni etc.

According to Chinese author Chou Ju Kwa “In Gujarat people wore loose clothes and red coloured shoes.” Venetian traveler Marco Polo says that in Malabar women and men and the king wore a cloth round their waist. According to the Rajtarangini of Kalhan, “Harsh introduced royal dress in Kashmir.” It included a long coat. Men and women were fond of many kinds of ornaments. They wore earrings, bangles and finger-rings. According to many Arab travelers, famous Venetian traveler Marco Polo and Chinese traveler Chou Ju Kwa people wore ornaments of many metals.

(8) Food and Drinks:

Majority of people were vegetarians but people at meat on special occassions. They ate the meat of peacock, horse, cock, and wild bear. They used wheat scarcely. Probably major grains used were rice, barley, corn, bajra etc. On the basis of the accounts of Arab travellers it can be said that in India use of intoxicating drinks was not common but this view doesn’t appear to be correct.

In fact the king, his attendant maids, majority of soldiers used to drink wine though use of wine was not considered a sign of being progressive in that period. It was considered a vice. Probably people considered it better to drink it clandestinely. In many Smithies its use is prohibited for the Brahmins, Kashatriyas and Vaishyas. People did not use tobacco. Bhang and opium as intoxicators. Milk, ghee, fruits and vegetables were considered an essential part of good diet.

(9) Recreation:

People used many means of recreation in this period. For royal families the chief sources of recreation were polo, chess, and boating, hunting, gambling and giving parties. The commoners enjoyed in fairs in villages as well as incites. Wrestling, swimming, sword playing, animal fights, horse racing and chariot-racing also were sources of recreation for them. Women had their recreation by chess, going in gardens, painting, music, dance, singing swinging and participating in festivities and fairs.

(10) Knowledge and Education:

Education was limited to a few people in society, particularly to Brahmins and upper classes. In the villages very often Brahmins performed the function of imparting education sitting in chaupal. They used to depend on land grants, for higher education students had to go to the Ashramas of Gurus. The disciples used to give Guru Dakshina either on the completion of their studies or used to give gifts to them in the beginning of their studies.

Education mostly consisted of languages, mathematics, grammar and the Vedas. Science and engineering education was neglected. In the north, Kashmir was main centre of education. Here there were centers of high learning of the Shaivites and other sects.

Some Buddhist monasteries like Nalanda, Vikramasila and Uddandpur were still very famous education centers where students came to study even from foreign countries. The king used to grant them many villages. The students enjoyed free education and lodging here from the king. In the south Madurai and Shringeri were most important centers of philosophy. Common people shirked from exchanging ideas.

(11) Standard of Living:

During this period, the king, his ministers, and nobles enjoyed a life of luxury. On the basis of historical and literary sources it can be said that they lived in many storied houses. They wore dress made of imported silk from China and foreign wool. They wore very costly ornaments. According to Marco Polo the ornaments of gold and costly stones worn by the king of Malabar Coast more than the cost of one entire city. This amount may be an exaggerated one but it is clear that upper classes wore very costly ornamments.

Like their clothes and ornaments their fond was also very lavish. Probably they used profusely foreign wine, dry fruits, meat etc. They had many wives mistresses and maid servants. They ate in costly utensils. Scents, sandalwood etc. were used in abundance. People of upper class had their utensils bordered with gold and got their shoes inlaid. For their transport they had elephants, horses and chariots in big numbers.

Urban merchants emulated the rich class. They werp liberal in giving grants but still they lived lavishly themselves as well. The living standard of artisans and labourers in the cities was low as compared to the upper classes. On the basis of the Rajtarangini of Kalhan Dr. Satish Chandra infers that on the one hand the courtiers enjoyed roasted meat and chilled scented wine, on the other, the commoners ate coarse rice and vegetable. In the villages the condition of the peasants can’t be said to be any better since they were the victims of the exploitation of feudal classes.