Religious and Cultural Condition of India in 11th Century

Religious and Cultural Condition:

During this period, the Turkish invasion led to many religions of India coming in contact with Islam. Jainism and Buddhism declined during this period. Though Jainism remained powerful in South India till the 10th century but still it was on the declined even there. Many sects of Hinduism rose to popularity during this period e.g., Shaivite, Vaishnavite, Tantricism etc.

(a) Shaivites:

All the sects of Shaivism considered Rudra-Shiva as their Supreme God though these sects differed because of their philosophy and mode of worship. Many rulers of the Pola and Sen Dynasty, Chedis and Chandellas patronized this sect. Many works refer to many Shiva temples being constructed by these rulers. During this period many Acharyas of this sect flourished, chief amongst them being Vasugupta, Kallad, Somanand, Ramkanth etc. Swami Shankaracharya explained the concept the worship of ‘Panchdeva’ as implicit in the Vedas and started a separate sect of his own which influenced many people.

He organized the Hindu Sanyasins on the pattern of the Budhist Sangha which came to be known as Maths and their heads as ‘Mathadhishas’. They were the followers of the Shava sect. The philosophy propounded by Shankaracharya came to be known as Advaitism which says that God and his creation is one and we see them as different only because of our own ignorance. Kashmir Shaivism also believed in Advaitism. According to it man’s soul and Shiva are one and the same.

Shaivism spread rapidly in Southen India because the Cholas sand the Pandyas patronized this religion. A court poet Nambi of famous Chola King Raja Raj wrote a collection of poems in Tamil. It was called ‘Tirumurai’. Some sects of Shaivism like the Kapalikas. Paspupatas and the Kalamuk have give recognition to Shiva as a terrible God. That is why they describe Shiva as carrying garland of skulls in his hands, wandering around amongst ghosts, inhabiting the cremation ground and surrounded by animals.

(b) Vaishnavite Sect:

During this period even Vishnu became a popular God. In fact Vaishnavite sect had spread throughout India during this period. The reason for it perhaps was that this sect unified the Vishnu Narayan mentioned in the ancient Hindu Scriptures like Mahabharat and Puranaas with the Bhagwat sect. Many Vaishnavite belonges of South India propogated the concept of Prapati developed on the basis of Shrimad Bhagwat which means dedication to Vishnu- Krishna and Narayan and the concept of getting Salvation through the mercy of God.

These saints were called Alwais. They composed many devotional songs to popularize this concept of Bhakti. The concept of incarnation became especially famous during this period even though this concept finds mention in ancient works like the Brahmans and the Aranyakas in the form of incarnation of Vishnuas the Fish, Tortoise, Boas, Narasimha etc.

This religion spread in Northern India in the forms of schools of Rambhakti and Krishnabhakti. Now Ram and Krishna both began to be considered the incarnation of Vishnu. This liberalism of Vaishnavism led hits increasing popularity. Statues of many Gods were established in the temples.

This sect placed emphasis on devotion instead of on various religious ceremonies. A preceptor of the Vaishnavite sect called Math Muni compiled the devotional songs composed by various foregoing preceptors and emphasized their repeated singing by the people in the temples.

In these movements for the popularization of Vaishnavite sect one Ramanujacharya of the twelfth century propagated a new idea before the people which came to be known as Vishishtadvaita. According to this concept ‘Jiva’ is a particular form of’Brahma’which is different from Brahma itself.

The Rashlila of Krishna contributed in the popularisation of this movement. This was described in many different regions in various works. Nimbarakacharya form South made Mathura the centre of his activities in the twelfth century and placed emphasis on the Rashlila of Krishna.

Kshemendra in his Dashavatar Charita (1060 A.D.) and Jayadewa in his Git Govinda (1180 A.D.) have described the various incarnations of God. Buddhism also felt the impact of the concept of incarnation of Brahmanism and even Buddha was incomporated as an incarnation of Vishnu. Vishnu’s wife Lakshmi was also worshipped alongwith hjm.

(c) Tantric Sect:

Many elements of Tantricism were prevalent among the common people whose mention is found in Atharvaveda. But around the 6 A.D. Tantricism arose as an important element in the religious spheres in India Tantricism placed great emphasis on magic etc. This sect had as its purpose the gratification of the material desire of its followers concerning money etc. and treatment of diseases of men and animals etc.

The scholars are of the opinion that Tantricism found a place in Brahmanic religion initially because many aborigines and tribes were incorporated in the Hindu fold and the Brahmins had absorbed many of their ceremonies etc. In the seventh century Tantricism spread more rapidly and between 1000-1200 A.D.

Tantricism because prevalent almost throughout the country. It crept even into Jainism, Buddhism Shaivism and Brahmanism. Gradually even astrology became a part of Tantricism. In the Vampanthi Tantricism great importarce was attached to Tantra (spread of knowledge) Yantra (giving attention to mystic circles) and Mantra. This form became popular in Kashmir, Nepal, Assam, Bengal, Orissa, Central Indian hilly regions and South India.

This sect allowed the entry of women as well as Sudras into its fold. In fact till the eighteenth century it remained free from all restrictions of caste etc. Most famous Hindu Yogi of Tantricism was Goraknath. His disciples are called ‘Nathpanthis’. They criticized the special privileges enjoyed by the Brahmanas.

(d) Lingayat Sect:

Around the twelfth century another movement became popular which was known as the Lingayat. The propagators of this sect were Basava and his nephew Chenna Basav who remained in the cover of the Kalachuri kings of Karnataka. They propagated this religion in the face of the severe criticism of the Jains. Lingayats were the worshippers of Shiva. They believed that God is one and all pervading.

They placed special emphasis on the worship of the Linga, applying of ‘Bhasma’ and obeying their Guru. They buried their dead instead of cremating them. They severally criticized he caste system and boycotted the concept of keeping fasts going to pilgrimage etc. In social sphere they opposed child marriage and sanctified Widow Marriage.

(e) Buddhism:

Though Buddhism had started declining from the time of the Guptas, yet till the time of Harsha it was considered one of the main religions in India. But by the Rajput period Buddhism was definitely on the decline. It is attributed to many causes. Firstly, Vajrayana sect had become very popular among the Buddhists because of which there was an increasing influence of magic and antiracism in Buddhism. Secondly, immorality and corruption had crept in Buddhism.

The followers of this sect considered women to be a medium of attaining Salvalion. Its propogators said that intercourse was essential. For religious worship. The third factor responsible for the decline of Buddhism was the propagation of Vaishnavism by preceptors like Sankaracharya, Kumari Bhatt and Ramanuja. They vehemently attacked the doctrines of Buddhism and re-established Brahmanism. Fourthly Brahmanism incorporated Buddha also as one of the incarnations of Vishnu and he began to be worshipped like any other Gods. Fifthly the Rajput rulers did not extend their patronage to Buddhism because it was a religion of non-violence and as such did not still their warlike and imperialist policy. Sixthly, the Muslim invaders invaded Bengal and Bihar, Where the Pala rulers had given patronage to Buddhism and destroyed all the Buddhist monasteries and Viharas. Many Buddhists were killed and the survivors ran away to Nepal or Tibet. Thus Buddhist religion disappeared from India by the thirteenth centuries.

(f) Jainism:

During this period the influence of Jainism declined in most parts Northern of India e.g., in Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab. In Western. India, particularly with the merchant class Jainism remained popular. The Chalukya rulers of Gujrat encouraged Jainism. The beautiful temples of Dilwara on Mount Abu were constructed in their time. The Paramora rulers of Malwa also got constructed big statues of Mahavira.

During the rule of the Pratehara rulers also there was a Jain temple of Mahavira existing in a place called Osia. In South India Jainism reached its peak during the nineth and the tenth centuries. The Ganga rulers of Karnatak were great patrons of Jainism. During this period great Pillars were constructed at various places. Being free of corruption Jainism continued to enjoy its prestige in society. It did not disappear from India like Buddhism.

(g) Zorastrianism:

With the rise of Islam in Arabia and the defeat of the Persian ruler Yazdagaurd III (he was the ruler of Sassarid dynasty who ruled (637-41 A.D.) many Zorastrians came and settled down in India. The rulers gave them protection. They became engaged in trade and industries in India itself. The names of many of the Zorastrian gods and many of their religious ceremonies resembled that of Vedic religion. Gradually they became part of Indian society. Though many Parsis still exist in Indian but they never practiced Proselytization here.

(h) Islam:

This religion came to India with the conquest of Sindh by the Arabs. Though Arab conquest was limited to Multan and Sindh only but this conquest opened the way for the propagation of Islam in India. The Rashtrakuta rulers of south had given many facilities to Arab traders even before the advent of the Turks. Thus when the Turks established their empire in Northern India, Islam was not new for India. During the nineth and the tenth centuries Arab travelers and Sufi saints roamed about in many parts of India.

After the invasion of Mahmud Gazni and his conquest of Punjab the method of the propagation of Islam underwent a change. Many Sufi saints started influencing Indian life. It is true that they enjoyed the patronage of the Turkish rulers as well. At the beginning of the twelfth century sufis became divided into twelve branches classified in two broad categories by the scholars viz. Ba-shar i.e., those who abide by Islamic injunctions and Be-shar i.e., those who are not bound by shara of Islamic injunction.

Among the Ba-shar classification only two became popular in Northern India viz. Chishtis and Subravardis. Member of their followers increased a lot with 13th and 14th centuries. Many Sufi saints came to India of whom the most famous was Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti of Ajmer who came in the 12th century. Many liberal Sufi saints absorbed many elements of Indian culture.

Briefly we can say that in India during the periods 1000-1200 A.D. the followers of various sects of Hinduism, like the Jains, the Buddhists, the Zorastrians and the followers of Islamic religion lived. In this period though most people were followers of Hinduism and mostly the kings also followed this religion but people were tolerant towards other religions.

The Progress of literature in India during 1000-1200 A.D.: During this period literature of many languages progressed. Many regional languages developed along with Sanskrit. Inspite of the limitations of the Sanskrit language court literature developed in this language only because none of the regional languages of Northern India was so developed that refined ideas and literary expressions can’t be described in them.

There is no doubt that because of the high standard of compositions in this language it came to be confined more or less to the scholar class only. Sanskrit literature mostly, followed the tradition and as such lacked originality. Whatever be the fact, administrative work in this period was done in Sanskrit only and all the ecologies and grant- letters were written in Sanskrit only. Many poetic works, plays, historical works and philosophical works were composed in Sanskrit. Famous poets of this period were Bharavi, Mahi, Magha, Shri Harsha etc.

Famous play wrights were Bhavabhuti, Rajshekhar, Bhatti Narayan, Murari and Jaideva. Many writers wrote the biographies of Rajput Kings famous among who were Kshemendra, Hemachandra, Vilhan, Padmagupta etc. During this very period some historical works were also composed in Sanskrit viz. Rajtaranagani, Vikramank Charita, Nava Sahasankacharit, Kumar Pala Charit etc. Many fictionists were also the contribution of this period like Kshemendra, Narayana Pandit, Somdeva etc.

In the Rajput period, Vachaspati Misra, Kumaril Bhatt, Mandan Misra, Shankaracharya and Nagarjuna were famous philosophers. In this period many kings not only patronized literatures but were themselves writers of very high order e.g., Bhoja, Yashpala, Someshwarkula Shekhar, Ravivarman, Ballal Sen etc. In the Rajput period nothing much was written in Pali language except some local histories, commentaries Bhashyas, Grammer works and law works.

The readers of this language were also limited to Buddhists. Similar was the fate of Prarkit and it was just entangled between Sanskrit and the regional languages. During the last phase of the period the languages that developed in Northern India were Bengali, Gujarati etc. It will suffice here to give a brief description of various writers and their works. It is as follows:

(1) Bharavi:

He developed a highly flowering style in Sanskrit literature. He was bom in Southern India in the Seventh Century. He wrote the famous poetic work Kiratarjuniyam. He was a court poet of the Chalukya king of South India named VishnuVardhan.

(2) Batti:

He enjoys a significant position in the Sanskrit literature of the Rajput period. He was a Court Poet in the court of Sridhar Sen of Vallabhi. His sole work is ‘Ravana’ which is popularly known as ‘Bhattikavya’ after his own name.

(3) Magha:

He was a resident of Gujarat. His most famous work is “Shishupala Vidha”. He was a poet as well as a scholar. He studied philosophy, Puranas, Vedas and many other scriptures’

(4) Sriharsha:

He flourished in the twelfth century. He was the court poet of Gahadwala king Jaichand. He is famous for his work known as ‘Naishdhiya charita’. He was great philosopher along with being a poet.

(5) Bhavabhuti:

He was a sanskrit poet under the Patronage of Kannauj king Yashoverman of Vidharbha. He was a great play wright. He was a resident of Vidarbha (Gujarat). He gave to the Sanskrit literature three famous works known as Malti Madhav, Uttar Ramcharita and Mahavircharit.

(6) IMuzari:

His sole ordinary composition is Anargh Raghav. It is a play in seven parts.

(7) Jaideva:

His famous work is a play called ‘Prasanna Raghav’.

(8) Rajshekhar:

He enjoyed the patronage of the Pratihara rulers of Kannauj. He composed six works including two Sanskrit plays named ‘Bala Ramayana’ and ‘Balabharat’; two small plays one in Sanskrit known as ‘Vidvashala Bhanjika’ and one in Prakrit named Karpurmanjari. One very high quality work of his was ‘Kavyamimanisa’ in Sanskrit. In all his five works are available.

(9) Bhatti Narayan:

He wrote a play called ‘Venisanhara’ in the Rajput period itself.

(10) Kalhan:

He was a resident of Kashmir. He was the author of ‘Rajtaranagani’. This historical work helps a lot to know the history of Kashmir. It was composed during the reign of Jai Singh (1107-1149 A.D.) of Kashmir.

(11) Hemchand:

He was under the patronage of the king of Bengal named Kumarpala. He wrote Kumarpalacharita of which twenty cantos were in Sanskrit and the rest eight in Prakrit. This work is unique because of being composed in two different dialects.

(12) Vilhan:

This scholar of Kashmir enjoyed the patronage of the Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI (1076-1127 A.D.) in Southern India. He wrote an epic called ‘Vikramankdeva charita’. It is a good source of knowledge about the Chalukya kings of Kalyani.

(13) Kshemendra:

He was a Kashmiri Scholar. He wrote a book on the ten incarnations of Vishnu called Dashavatara in the eleventh century.

(14) Padmagupta or Parimala:

He wrote a historical epic called ‘Navasahasancharit’ in Sanskrit around 1005 A.D. In it he had described the history of the Paramaras of Dhamagari. During this period not only literally works as mentioned above were composed but books were written also on medicine, astronomy, mathematics, music etc. According to historians during this period (750-1200 A.D.) one Madhavokar wrote a work on medicine describing in great details the systems and remedies of many diseases. ‘Nighunt’ of Dhanwantari and ‘Rasa Ratnakar’ of Nagarjun are the famous works of this period.

In the ‘Shahlihanna’ of Bhoj we find a description of the diseases and their cure concerning horses. Chakrapanidatta of Bengal wrote ‘Chikitsashastra’ in which he gave knowledge of preparing and using ‘Bhasma’. During this period works like ‘Ganitsara’, ‘Vrihanmasa’, ‘Sidhanta Shiromani’, ‘Rajmriganka’, ‘Trishanti’, ‘Karnatilak’, ‘Arya Sidhanta’ etc. were composed on mathematics and astronomy. In the field of music works like ‘Sangitamaranand’ of Narada, ‘Sangitchuramani’ of Jagdevmal, ‘Sangitratnakar’ of Sarangdev, ‘Mansollasa’ of Someshwar etc. were composed.

Works in other languages: During this period, apart from Sanskrit languages like Apabhramsha, Prakrit etc. became famous. Haribhadra wrote ‘Samaraichkoha’ and ‘Dhurtakhyana’ in Prakerit. Udayotan Suri has written a detailed religious story in ‘Kuvalaymala’. The Jain and Buddhist missioneries expressed their ideas in Apabhramsha in this period and recomposed certain works. (According to Patanjali Sanskrit used in colloquial use was called Apabhramsha). From Apabhramsha later on languages like Hindi, Kasmiri, Punjabi, Nepali, Marathi, Sindfii etc. developed.