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The Bactrian or Indo-Greek rule in India was primarily destroyed by the Shakas, also known as Scythians. In Indian sources they are sometimes mentioned together with Parthians as Shaka- Pahlava.

The inroads made by the central Asian nomadic tribes were the result of the circumstances prevalent in central Asia and the contiguous Chinese regions. That is why we have to rely mainly on Chinese sources for the reconstruction of the movements of all these tribes.

The Chinese emperor Shi Huang Ti’s construction of the Great Wall in the third century BC forced Hiung-nu, Wu-sun and Yueh-chi tribes to migrate towards south and west. The first to migrate were Yueh-chi, who displaced the Scythians who, in turn, invaded Bactria and Parthia. From there they entered the Indian subcontinent using Bolan Pass, establishing them in western India.

The earliest Shaka ruler of India was Maues or Moga who established Shaka power in Gandhara. He ruled around 80 BC though some historians believe that he ruled from c. 20 BC-AD 22. Maues is identified with Moa of the Maira well inscription and with Moga of the Taxila copper­plate of Kshatrap Patika. He issued a large number of copper coins and a few silver coins. He had the title maharaja mahatma.

On the obverse of his coins appear many Greek deities, Shiva and the Buddha. A dated copper plate inscription discovered in Taxila records the establishment of the relics of Buddha in a stupa during the period of Maues.

Maues was succeeded by Azes I, who put an end to the remnant of Greek rule by annexing the kingdom of Hippostratos in the eastern Punjab. Azes I issued some coins jointly with Azilises, and Azilises later jointly issued coins with Azes II. Thus Azes I and Azilises ruled jointly first and later Azilises and Azes II ruled jointly.

On one of Azilises’s coins appear a typical Indian diety – Abhishekha-Lakshmi, i.e. Lakshmi standing on a lotus-flower with twin stalks and leaves and on each leaf stands a small elephant sprinkling water on the head of the diety. It was during the time of Azes II that the Shaka occupation of the western frontiers of India passed into the hands of the Pahlavas. However, at least for some time, the Shakas and Pahlavas (or Parthians) ruled on parallel lines.

Under the pressure from the Parthians and later from Kushanas, the Shakas got divided into five branches, with their seats of power in different parts of India and Afghanistan (four of them in India).

The rulers belonging to all these branches were now known as kshatrapas or mahaksatraps, which title was influenced by the kshatrapal system of provincial administration of the Shakas, an Achaemenid and Seleucid replica.

One of these kshatrapal families ruled in Kapisa in Afghanistan, another near Taxila in the western Punjab, a third at Mathura, a fourth in the upper Deccan and a fifth at Ujjaini in Malwa.

Injhe Taxila copper plate inscription we find the mention of the name Laika Kusuluka, who is described as the king of Gandhara. His son Mahadanapati Patika assumed the title of mahakshatrapa. Ranjuvulu was the first ruler of the line of kshatrapas of Mathura who assumed the title of apratihatachakra. He was succeeded by Sodasa who, in turn, was succeeded by Hagamasha and Hagana. This family was finally overthrown by Kanishka I.

The kshatrapas of western India initially ruled as the vassals of the Kushana kings. In this region there were two kshatrapa families – one in Maharashtra and the other in Ujjaini. The earliest known kshatrap of Maharashtra was Bhumaka, who belonged to Kshaharata family. His coins have been found in the coastal regions of Gujarat, Saurashtra, Both Malwa and Ajmer. Both Kharoshthi and Brahmi scripts were used on his coins.

Bhumaka’s successor and most illustrious king of the Kshaharata family was Nahapana, known from his silver and copper coins as well as from several inscriptions. He has been identified with Mambarus of the Periplus, whose capital was Minnagara (Mandsor) in Ariake (Aparanta).

Nahapana had a long reign which probably commenced in the last quarter of the first century AD and ended in AD 124. On many coins Nahapana is mentioned as rajan which shows his independence. The inscriptions of his son-in-law and general Ushavadata show that he controlled a large part of Maharashtra, southern Gujarat, northern Konkan, Kukura, east Malwa, western Malwa and Ajmer.

In the end, Nahapana was defeated by Gautamiputra Sri-Satakarni. The Kshaharata family disappeared after Nahapana and in the south-western kshatrapi of the Kushana Empire the Kshaharatas were succeeded by the Shaka family of the Kardamakas with its centre at Ujjaini. The first ruler of this line of kings was Chastana. He used three scripts, viz. Greek, Kharoshthi and Brahmi, in his coin legends. This line ruled from AD 130 to AD 388. Chastana is mentioned as Tiastenes and Ujjaini, as Ozene in Ptolemy’s Geography.

The Andau inscription of AD 130 shows that Chastana had been ruling conjointly with his grandson Rudradaman. Rudradaman’s father Jayadaman was dead by this time. According to the Junagarh Rock inscription, men of all castes chose him as protector and that he won for himself the title of mahaksatrap.

Rudradaman was, by any standard, the greatest ruler among the Shakas. He twice defeated a satavahana king named Satakarni, the lord of the Deccan, but spared his life because of family relations. He conquered Malwa, Saurashtra, Gujarat, northern Konkan and Mahishmati.

He also humbled the Yaudheyas of Rajasthan. Rudradaman was succeeded by Damaghsada I, Jivadaman, Rudrasimha I, Jivadaman (second term), Rudrasena I, Sanghadaman, Damasena, Yashodaman, Vijayasena, Damajadasri III, Rudrasena II, Visvasimha, Bhartridaman and finally Visvasena ruling till the closing years of the fourth century AD. The Shaka power gradually fell into the hands of the Abhira chieftains.

The Parthians (Pahlavas) the Parthians or Pahlavas were an Iranian people, who for sometimes lived with the Scythians. Therefore, many characteristics were common to both. Towards the middle of the first century AD, Shaka rule in parts of Gandhara was supplanted by that of the Parthians.

When Apollonius of Tyana visited Taxila in AD, 43-44, the region was being ruled by one Phraotes. Gondophernes was the greatest Indo-Parthian ruler. He ruled from AD 19 to AD 45 (based on Takht-i-Bahi inscription). He overthrew Hermaeus, the last Greek king of the upper Kabul Valley. On all his coins, Gondophernes appears as a bearded, middle-aged man.

A tradition associates Gondophernes with St. Thomas, the Apostle. This tradition appears for the first time in the Syrian text of the Acts of Judas Thomas, the Apostle. This contains the story of the conversion of Gondophernes into Christianity and the subsequent martyrdom of St. Thomas. Marco Polo, who died in AD 1324, wrote that St. Thomas was buried in Southern India.

Soon after Gondophernes, the Pahlava rule in India ended and a new nomadic tribe called Kushanas occupied the region. Excavations at Begram have unearthed a large number of coins of the Parthian king Gondophernes, but none of his successors.