Get complete information on the Various Categories of Research

The present view of categorizing research is somewhat different and we shall now discuss the categories of research in that perspective. The research these days is categorised as (i) Ex-post Facto research; (ii) Laboratory or experimental research; (iii) Field investigation research; (iv) Survey research; (v) Evaluation research and (vi) Action research.

(1) Ex-Post Facto Research:

Ex-post facto research is systematic empirical inquiry in which the scientist does not have direct control of independent variables because their manifestations have already occurred or because they are inherently not manipulable.

Inferences about relations among variables are made, without direct intervention, from co commitment variation of independent and dependent variables. This kind of research is based on a scientific and analytical examination of dependent and independent variables.

Independent variables are studied in retrospect for seeking possible and plausible relations and the likely effects that the changes in independent variables produce on a single or a set of dependent variables.

In ex-post research, the researcher’s control on the behaviour of independent variables is very weak and in many cases no control is possible.

Social sciences particularly do not afford a possibility of controlling the changes in the behavioural pattern of independent variables. These are usually affected by complex social phenomena and one can only examine how the dependent variable is affected by such situations.

Ex-post facto research, therefore, has to take things as these are and examine separately or wholly their impact on the explained variables. In Social-Scientific research, there always exists a possibility of identifying dependent and independent variables either singly or in groups and thus postulate models for carrying out their analysis for researcher’s utility.

The ex-post facto research may be carried out on a limited scale or on a very large scale depending upon what techniques of research are available with the researcher and what is the nature of the investigation that researcher has undertaken.

In any case, this type of research has some of the weaknesses which, at times, obstruct its application and adaptability on a larger scale. These weaknesses are:

1. The inability to control the changing patterns of independent variables. As already explained independent variables in social behavioural situations vary in a very complex and independent fashion and restrict the manipulative character of the researcher.

As such in many a situation, it becomes very difficult and sometimes impossible to disentangle the separate influences of independent variables on dependent one. This creates the notorious problem of multicollinearity and tells upon the explanatory character of the model as a whole.

2. Secondly, the ex-post facto research findings owe the risk of improper interpretations. This is also mainly due to the fact that the control on independent variable is very weak and one really does not make out in a clear way as to what the research findings are pertaining to.

3. Thirdly, the ex-post fact research may not have any particular hypothesis as there is likelihood that such a hypothesis may predict a spurious relationship between independent and dependent variables.

However, despite these-weaknesses there is considerable scope for conducting research of this type in social sciences. Since most of the social behavioural problems, cannot be subjected to experimental investigations, ex-post facto research is a good explanatory instrument of changes that take place in the dependent variables.

If the set of independent variables is carefully selected and proper techniques adopted for analyses, meaningful insights can be gained into the changing pattern of dependent variables. It can even be said that ex-post facto research is more important than experimental research. This is, of course, not a methodological observation.

It means rather, that the most important social scientific research problems do not lend themselves to experimentation, although many of them do lend themselves to controlled inquiry of the ex-post facto kind. If a tally of sound and important studies in the behavioural sciences and education were made, it is possible that ex-post facto studies would outnumber and outrank experimental studies.

(ii) Laboratory or Experimental Research:

By definition, research of this type is confined to laboratory experiments alone. The basic feature of such research is that there exists a possibility of exercising control over independent variables and isolating thier influences for plausible explanations.

A laboratory experiment is a research study in which the variance of all or nearly all of the possible influential independent variables not pertinent to the immediate problem of the investigation is kept at a minimum.

This is done by isolating the research in a physical situation apart from the routine of ordinary living and by manipulating one or more independent variables under rigorously specified operationalised and controlled conditions.

This type of research has a limited application in social sciences as it is extremely difficult to study social variables in isolation of each other. However, it may at times be possible to create a situation; where in a maximum control can be exercised to keep the variations among the independent variables at a minimum. In such cases laboratory experiment type of research may find its applicability in social research as well.

According to Dr. F. Stuart Chaplin, pioneer and authority on experimental type research, ‘while it is a true statement when it means that human beings are not to be physically manipulated in an autocratic or in an arbitrary manner; this does not prevent observation of human relations under conditions of control.

It is obvious that all programmes of social reform such as relief work, social insurance, low-rent housing etc., directed to uplift the masses do aim to influence individuals and are experiments in the trial-and-error sense of directing the course of events towards certain desired ends.

Such programmes are not passive observation of what happens; but on the contrary are efforts to see the something desired does happened.

It is the merit of experimental designs that they supply the social researcher with a reliable method by which to observe under conditions of control the degrees to which social action programmes achieve their objective.

But use of experimental designs in social sciences research is beset with many problems. There are practical difficulties to random sampling, losses of cases and shrinkage in numbers in each group during the period of observation, and limitations connected with applications of probability tests as a means of estimating the significance of the results.

Most of the laboratory research may be artificial in character and may only help in finding out some explanations to given situations; on the other hand, social situations are real and pragmatic and have very limited scope-for artificial research. Since laboratory situations are artificial, possibilities of wrongly interpreting the experimental findings exist and may pose a threat to the internal validity to such investigation.

Laboratory experiments usually help to discover relations under pure and contaminated conditions. These are also treated as rectifiable from known theories and models and are also held as competent to refine or modify the existing theories and related hypothesis. For these purposes experimental research is most often carried out in the field of physical sciences.

Social Sciences theories and models can be verified, refined and redesigned only when field situations are taken into account.

(iii) Field Investigation Research:

A field experiment is a research study in a realistic situation in which one or more independent variables are manipulated by the experimenter under as carefully controlled conditions as the situation will permit.

Where the laboratory experiment has a maximum of control, most field studies must operate with less control factor that is often a severe handicap to the experiment. The weaknesses of field experiment, therefore, are of practical nature.

The control cannot be held as very tight, the investigator himself works under several influences and may at times be faced with unpleasant situations and the independent variables may get significantly affected by uncontrolled environmental influences.

A field experiment is generally credited with a few virtues which are supposed to be unique to this category of research. These virtues may be listed as (1) the variables in a field experiment operate more strongly than those used in laboratory experiment.

This is because of the fact that field situation takes stock of realistic natural operations. (2) Field experiments have the advantage of investigating more fruitfully the dynamics of inter-relationships of small groups of variables. (3) Field experimental studies are also ideal to testing of the theory and to the solution of the real world problems.

Field experimental studies, therefore, are important part of the applied research which, at times, play an important role in pointing out the nature and direction of the refinements required for an existing doctrinaire.

A practical difficulty in the field of this research is that randomization of units in the given population. Unless the field of operation has been selected in an objective and scientific manner, the investigations may not proceed on the lines desired by the researcher.

Many a times the combination of dependent and independent variables may be such that the dependent variables are not responsive to the changes occurring in independent variables. Nevertheless, like other less structure techniques, it tends to be highly suggestive within the context of discovery.

(iv) Survey Research:

This type of research has become very popular these days as a scientific method for discovering relevant impact and inter-relationships of social and psychological variables from given populations. Survey research studies large and small populations by selecting and studying samples chosen from the populations to discover the relative incidence, distribution and inter-relations of sociological and psychological variables.

Populations may be small or large and the survey research can work well by resorting to sampling practices. If survey research is also called as sample survey research, it will not be inappropriate. Survey research as a matter of fact has developed as a research activity along with the development of sampling theory and its diverse procedures.

The advantage of this type of research is that it links sample investigations with populations and thereby offers an easy opportunity of studying population behaviour through sample survey research assessments. Survey research is mostly devoted to the study of characteristics of the populations under investigation.

In the field of social sciences, inter-relationships of sociological, psychological and attitudinal variables are framed for purposes of investigation through the social groups from any selected population. As a part thereof the opinions, attitudes and behaviours of individuals are noted and then scientifically studied to examine their impact on the population as a whole.

Survey research necessarily is not only meant for sociological and psychological research alone but its scope can be widened to include variables of economic nature for estimating incidence and distribution of welfare activities from economic point of view.

Survey research is approached through the methods of personal interviews, mailed questionnaires and personal discussions besides indirect oral investigation. These days this type of research is held to be significant in making valuable contribution to social sciences research methodology.

It has directly helped in the improvement of the sampling procedures and their applicability to real world situations besides also suggesting improvements in resolving the complex situations to unambiguous experimentation with a view to obtain research findings.

Survey research necessitates a well designed research programme in which objectives are properly framed and the programme of activities is scientifically planned till the final research report is prepared.

This type of research has the advantage of greater scope in the sense that a larger volume of information can be controlled from a very large population. Survey research no doubt, is more expensive but the amount and quality of information that is collected makes, such investigation very economical. This information is also accurate, of course, within the range of sampling errors because trained and technically knowledgeable personnel are employed for the job.

This type of research, however, suffers from some limitations which are listed as follows:

(a) It is charged that survey information touches only the surface of the research field and does not make a deeper thrust into it.

(b) It is also charged with demanding of more time, effort and money

(c) Sometimes if sample information’s have not been collected very carefully, the magnitude of sampling error may be too large to render the sample results reasonably accurate

(d) Since the sample research is based on the respondents’ interviews, the problems of personal inhibitions, indifference and unawareness of the nature and purpose of investigation renders survey information invalid or at least imprecise.

Despite the weaknesses mentioned above, survey research holds a greater promise for social researchers in future for exploring socio-economic information in diverse population.

(v) Evaluation Research:

Evaluation research is a recent addition to the types of research. It would be appropriate to call this category of research as a product of developmental programming which has been adopted on a very large scale in the recent years, more particularly after Second World War when most of the developing countries emerged on the development scene.

This type of research is primarily directed to evaluate the performance of the developmental projects and other economic programmes that have already been implemented, the objective being to realistically assess the impact of any such programmes.

Evaluations held to mean comprehensive concept of measurement and it is because of this definition of evaluation that project evaluations have become frequent in the recent years. The evaluation is carried out with respect to the broader changes and major objectives of a programme. Evaluation these days does not only aim at the physical achievement of a project but also at the size and direction of variables that the project has resulted in attitudes, interests, thinking patterns/work habits, socio-cultural adaptability and psycho-dynamics of the population in which or around which the project has been launched.

The evaluation research is of three types, mainly, (1) concurrent evaluation, (2) phasic or periodic evaluation and (3) terminal evaluation.

1. Concurrent Evaluation:

Concurrent evaluation is a continuing process of an inspection of the project that has been launched. The word concurrent itself points out to the fact that the evaluation goes on side by side with the implementation of a project. In this manner such type of research not only evaluates the performance but also stimulates it and gives direction and control as and when possible.

2. Phasic or Periodic Evaluation:

This type of evaluation takes place at different phases or stages of performance of the project. If, for example, a project has been launched in three different phases, as is sometimes done, in building up and institutional complex or an urban site or a bigger industrial empire, evaluation research is conducted at the completion of each stipulated phase of the project thus launched. It enables us to evaluate the performance of the completed phase and make adjustments in the subsequent phases after keeping in view the failures and successes of the previous phase.

3. Terminal Evaluation:

Terminal evaluation is the evaluation of the final phase of the project. Once the project has been completed, an overall assessment is made to see how best a project has served the objectives for which it was launched.

It is very essential for the conduct of this type of research that the researcher knows very well the objectives of the programme and the process of its implementation. While carrying out the evaluation research, a researcher can scientifically look into the performance of project in relation to the objective that has been laid out and in line with the processes that had been recommended for its implementation.

Action Research:

Action research is also a recent addition to the categories of research known to a modern social scientist. By its very definition, it is a research through launching of a direct action with the objective of obtaining workable solutions to the given problems. In conducting research through launching of actions, this type of research has the quality of adapting itself to the changes that take place in a given population.

Action research is spread over different phases such as a base line survey, where all the possible information of research interest is collected to enable the researcher to acquaint himself with the existing or operational situations.

This also aims at collecting information from other sources that have direct or indirect bearing on the research programme. At the second phase, the planned action is practically launched and then at the next phase action research carries out periodical assessment of the project.

At a subsequent stage, changes, modifications and other improvements are made in the functional aspect of the project and finally the whole process culminates in the evaluation of the project as a whole.

The methods used for this type of research are usually personal interviews method and the survey method. Sometimes attitude measurement techniques are also made use of. Some problems associated with action research are the personal values of the individuals, lack of social scientist’s interest and exclusive locations with the respondent.

Action research in its phasic order may not be much different than merely conducting survey research at different stages. It has, however the advantages of direct-action oriented solutions to the real world problems and sometimes has the potentialities of suggesting significant improvements in the existing solutions.

Action research warrants a thorough insight into the research problem and an equally effective command over the actions proposed to be launched for research findings.

If the collaboration of the researcher with the respondent is not smooth or the relevant field has not been chosen or there exists lack of understanding of the pertinent issues or there is reluctance on the part of two parties to interact their views and opinions, the foundation of action research may become too weak to permit plausible explanations and solutions to the problems for which action research was adopted.

However, at times, it may serve useful purpose to launch action research in a bid to prepare some basis for further meaningful research.