What are the five alternative sections of Political Science ?

The meaning of politics has never been precise or static. There is a wide variety of interpretations and conceptions of politics. We can classify these into five major sections for analytical convenience.

1. The Classical Conceptions of Greece and Rome:

Greek masters of political thought like Socrates, Plato and Aristotle interpreted politics as an activity of the ‘Polis’ (City State). According to Barker, Polis is all inclusive; that is, inclusive of economic, cultural, ethical and other aspects. The Greek conception of politics was primarily philosophical and idealistic as the governing ideals of politics, society and individual conduct were goodness, virtue and knowledge.

In contrast, the ancient Romans gave a juristic or a legal interpretation of politics. Politics was an activity concerning the Empire (Regnum). It was governed by a set of general and definite rules.

During the middle ages, ‘politics became a branch of theology’. There was a dual centre authority – Empire and Church. Political authority took care of the material

Well-being of society while the Church took care of spiritual/ religious matters. Political authority was subordinate to the authority of the Church and as such not autonomous.

2. Liberal Conception:

The Liberal view is a product of Renaissance and Reformation. It has dominated Western thinking from the I6th century to the present. This view was developed by the writings of Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Mill, Green etc.

The task of politics is to maintain peace, order, and harmony so as to enable competing individuals and groups to have free play. Modern liberals put stress upon the role of the political system to serve the common good of the community and to secure justice and welfare. They look upon it as a mediator between diverse group interests or at best as the final arbiter between them.

3. Marxian Conception:

Marxism puts forth a sociological analysis of politics. Modes of production or economic factors are the most fundamental in determining the political, legal, social, moral and cultural conditions of societies. On the basis of relations of production, class divisions (haves and have-not’s) of society take place and politics reflects the struggle between classes.

The state becomes an instrument of the economically dominant class over the economically weaker sections. The ultimate goal for exploited and oppressed people is to achieve a classless society which can be brought about by revolutionary struggle. In a classless society there is no need for the state and hence it ‘withers away’.

4. Indian Conceptions:

In ancient India, the study of politics was called ‘Rajadharma’ or ‘Rajyashastra’. ‘Dandaniti’ and ‘Nitishastra’ were other terms used for the subject. The most effective term for the science of politics, however, was ‘Arthashastra’ used by Kautilya. All the different schools of politics shared a common emphasis on ‘dharma’, that is, obligation to the doctrine of natural justice on the part of the ruler.

Politics in ancient India remained mostly ethical. Politics in medieval India was more autonomous than in the medieval West. During the freedom movement, activist politics replaced philosophical orientation. In recent times Indian politics combines political theory with political practice as in the West.

5. Modern Conceptions:

The views of modern political scientists bring out three marked elements of politics, namely power, conflict and consensus.

(i) Politics as Influence and Power:

Machiavelli, Max Weber, Bertrand Russel, Lasswell, Kaplan, Catlin and Morganthau interprete politics in terms of power. Lasswell and Kaplan write: “The concept of power is perhaps the most fundamental in the whole of Political Science; the political process is shaping, distribution and exercise of power.”

One advantage that power has over earlier concepts of politics is that it focuses attention on a process, not on a legal abstraction such as state. Political Science studies the way power is accumulated, used and controlled in modern society.

(ii) Politics as Conflict and Controversy:

J, D. B, Miller writes, “Politics is a natural reflex of the divergences between the members of a society.” Quincy Wright says, “Politics exists only when ends or means are controversial. “Karl Marx viewed conflict as the central subject in the study of politics. Alexi de Tocqueville was the first to support the idea that, democracy involves a balance between the forces of conflict and consensus.”

(iii) Politics as Cooperation and Consensus:

Human interests not only clash but also coincide. Sometimes fundamentals are agreed on and only specifics are the subject of argument but there are times when even the basics become the area of debate. Political systems encompass not only the competing demands but also aggregative and integrative forces.

There is scope for consensus and harmony among groups and individuals because the interests of each party are acknowledged and accommodated. The integrative function of the political system promotes the much needed consensus in society.