Settlements of the early farming communities in South India appear rather suddenly in the third millennium BC, with no evidence to suggest a gradual evolution from a hunting-gathering to a food-produc­ing economy.

The settlements have been found in low rainfall, semi-arid and sandy loamy regions favorable to dry farming and pastoralism.

These cultures practiced what is referred to as ‘polished stone axe industry’-stone axes made of hard rock’s (basalt and docerite) manufactured by grinding and polishing.

These settlements probably had wattle and daub structures, an agro pastoral way of life and engaged in the hunting guild animals for food.

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These farming communities emerged and grew through three broad phases. The first phase (ascribed to 2500-1800 BC by radiocarbon dating) is repre­sented by settlements on tops of granitoid hills or on leveled terraces or in valleys. These are asso­ciated with ash mounds, like the excavated sites at Utnur, Kupgal, Piklihal, Palavoy, Brahmagiri and Maski.

The second phase lasting from 1800 BC to 1500 BC continued with the settlement patterns of the first phase. However, circular huts of wattle and daub with mud floors and pit dwellings have been noted.

Polished stone axes and blades were generally used. Objects of copper and bronze are found for the first time. Important sites are Piklihar, Brahmagiri, Hallur, Tekkalakotal, T. Narsipur and Sanganakallu.

The third phase (probably 1400-1050 BC) was marked by an increase in copper and bronze tools along with stone axe and blade industries. Such tools have been found at Tekkalakota, Piklihar, Hallur, Brahmagiri, Sanganakallu and Paiyampalli.

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The sec­ond and the third phases are termed ‘Neolithic- Chalcolithic’ as they are characterised by copper/ bronze tools.

The pottery type of Phase is characterised by the common grey ware with red ochre bands and buff brown ware. Some forms have applied ring feet and hollow pedestals similar to the Harappan forms in Kalibangan and Amri.

In Phase II, red and black slipped wares are absent and perforated and spouted vessels emerged.

A grey and buff bare with a harder surface emerged in Phase III along with a wheel thrown unburnished ware with purple paint, the latter similar to the Jorwe ware. A suggestion of the early Harappan period is found in the technique of roughening the outer surface of pottery.

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Of the stone tools, long and thin parallel-sided blades have been found. Polished tools include triangular axes, wedges, chisels, scrapers and pointed tools. Of the copper and bronze tools, finds include flat axes and chisels, anitomony rods, even a fish hook.

Various types of millets were the main crops. Barley and hyacinth seeds were consumed. Cattle buffalo, goat, dog, pig and fowl were domesticated.

The dead were mostly buried within houses. Evidence of multiple pot burials is available from Tekkalakota.