Political Condition of India at the eve of Muslim Conquest in 11th Century

One the eve of the Muslim invasions of India in the beginning of the 11th century, India was divided into a large number of states. There was going on a struggle for supremacy among the heads of those states. They were so jealous of one another that they could not put a united front against the foreign invaders. The lack of a sense of unity among them was responsible for their defeat.

Multan and Sindh:

The Arabs had conquered Sindh in 712 A.D. and had also established their control over Multan. These Muslim States were able to maintain their existence in spite of the fact the Hindu States in their neighbourhood were certainly very strong and could have finished them only in they could join hands. Their mutual jealousies helped these states to continue. These states threw off the Yoke of the Caliph in 871 A.D. and had enjoyed complete independence since then.

On account of their peculiar position in the country, they continued to profess nominal allegiance to the Caliph. There were many dynastic changes from time to time. However, at the beginning of the 11th century Multan was being ruled by Fateh Daud of Karmathians Dynasty. He was a capable ruler. Sindh proper was being ruled by the Arabs and was practically are independent State.

In both these states there were a sizeable number of converts to Islam. The condition of the people in these kingdoms was quite bad because the rulers could not provide proper administration.

The Hindustani Kingdom:

The Kingdom of Hindustani located in North-West India extended over territories from Sirhind to Lamgham and Kashmir to Multan. Once even Kabul formed a part of this empire, but by the 11th century its territory had been greatly reduced.

This Hindu Kingdom was able to resist the pressure of the Arabs: for 200 years. Ultimately, it was forced to give up a part of Afghanistan including Kabul and shift its capital to Udbhandapur of Waihand. Jaipala was the name of the Hindu ruler of this kingdom towards the end of the 10th century. He was a brave soldier and a capable ruler. However, he did not prove himself to be a match for the foreign invaders, but he was the first Indian rule to fall Victim to foreign’s invasion.

Kashmir:

Another important kingdom at that time was Kashmir. Its ruler came into conflict with the Hindustani Kingdom and Kanauj. Shankar Varman was a very famous king of Kashmir of Utpal Dynasty. He was responsible for the extension of the boundaries of Kashmir in many directions.

It is said that he died while fighting with the people of Urasa, modern Hazara District. After the death of Shankar Varman the Utpal Dynasty began to decline. There was a lot of confusion after his death. The Brahmans of the valley putup Yasaskara on the throne in 939, but the dynasty founded by him did not last long.

The next important ruler was Parvagupta who himself was succeeded by Kshemagupta. Kshemagupta was a wet ruler. Dida, his queen, was actually the ruler of the country during the reign of her husband. Ultimately, she managed to oust her husband and place the crown over her own head. She ruled up to 1003 A.D. During her reign the condition of the state was far from satisfactory. After that Sangrama Raja founded a new dynasty known as the Lohara Dynasty. When the Punjab was being attacked by the Muslims, Kashmir was being ruled by a woman.

Kanauj:

The Pratiharas ruled over Kanauj from about the middle of the 9th century A.D. They traced their descent from Lakshman, the brother of Ram Chandra. There are scholars who believe that they descended from the Gurjara race Vats a Raja won the title of Samrat of Emperor. He was succeeded by Nagabhatta II. The latter defeated Dharampala, the king of Bengal but suffered defeat at the hands of the Rashtrakutas. The Pratiharas had to continue the fight against their neighbours. Mahipala, the Pratihara king, was defeated by Indra III, the Rashtrakuta King and lost his capital, Kanauj.

The Pratihara power was considerably weakened and its rulers continued to rule over the Upper Gangetic Valley and parts of Rajasthan and Malwa. Their former feudatories, the Chandelas of Bundhelkhand, the Chalukyas of Gujarat and Paramaras of Malwa became independent. The last Pratihara ruler was Rajyapala. His capital, Kanauj, was invaded by Mahmud Ghazni in 1018 A.D. The Pratiharas were succeeded by Gahadawalas of Kanauj. The founder of their dynasty was Chandra Deva. He protected the sacred cities of Kashi, Kanauj, Ayodhya and Indrasthana.

Probably, he also created a standing army to guard the frontier by levying a tax known as the Urushadanda. Govinda Chandra, his grandson, continued fighting against his neighbours and was successful in extending his Eastern Frontier upto Monghyer. Probably, he did not succeed much against the Muslims.

Govind Chandra was succeeded by Vijaya Chandra. Hostilities started again with the Muslims during his reign. He was succeeded by his son, Jaya Chandra. The latter had to fight against the Senas in the East and the Chauhans of Ajmer and Sambhar in the West. He abolished the tax called Urushadanda. There was bitter hostility between Jai Chandra and Prithvi Raj Chauhan and that was partly responsible for the destruction of both.

The Chandelas:

To the South of Kanauj lay the kingodm of the Chandelas of Khajuraho. Vidyadhara, its ruler, fought against Mahmud of Ghazni. After his death, the kingdom passed through many ups and downs. Madanavarman (1129-1163 A.D.) not only defended his kingdom against the foreign invaders but also extended its boundaries. Paramardin, his grandson, ruled from 1165 to 1201 A.D. He suffered defeat at the hands of Prithvi Raj Chauhan in about 1182 A.D. Paramardin lacked valour. He was hostile to the Chauhans and might have been on friendly terms with the Gahadawalas.

The Tomars of Delhi:

The Tomars of Delhi had proved more than once their right to be the defenders of the gateway to the Gangetic plains. In 1043 A.D., Mahipala Tomer captured Hansi, Thanesar, Nagarkot and many other forts. Although he advanced as far as Lahore, he failed to capture the same. In spite of this, the Tomars were attacked by their Rajput neighbours. Under these circumstances, the Tomars changed their policy and entered into some sort of an alliance with the Muslims against their Rajput enemies.

The Chauhans:

The Chauhans were the rivals of the Tomars for a long time. They were able to increase their power during the 11th and 12th centuries A.D. In 1079 A.D., Durlabharaja III lost his life while fighting against the Muslims. The struggle against the Muslims was continued by his nephew, Prithvi Raj I. Ajayaraja, the next ruler, claimed to have defeated his Muslim enemies from Ghazna.

Actually he appears to have suffered defeat at their hands. Amoraja, the son of Ajayaraja, was able to defeat the Muslims raiders in the battle near Ajmer. Not contented with this, he carried his raids into the territories of his enemies. During the reign of his son, Bisal or Vigraharaja IV, a Muslim attack was beaten off and the Chauhans were able to capture the forts of Hansi and Delhi. The Tomars of Delhi continued to rule after that as feudatories of the Chauhans.

Vigraharaja can certainly claim credit for having realised the danger from the Muslims and his duty to fight against them. A study of the Siwalik Pillar Prasasti and the play Lalitavigharaja of which he is the hero shows Vigraharaja had decided to make the country called Aryavarta the abode of the Aryas by the extermination of the invaders from the Indian soil and the protection of the temples of the Hindus from destruction at the hands of the Muslims.

A reference may be made to the rivalry between the Chauhans and the Chaulukyas. Mulraja I, the Chaulukya, ruler, was defeated by Vigraharaja II, the Chauhan ruler. Jayasimha Siddharaja of Gujarat tried to end the hostilities by giving his daughter in marriage to Arnoraja.

However, hostilities once again flared up in the reign of Kumarapala Chaulukya who defeated Arnoraja near Ajmer and forced him to conclude peace on very humiliating terms. Vigraharaja IV, the Chauhan ruler, avenged the insult by revaging the Chaulukya territories and capturing Chittor. Hostilities continued even during the succeeding reigns. When both sides got tired, a treaty of peace was concluded in about 1187 A.D. In spite of this, there was no chance of the two powers joining hands to fight against the Muslims.

The desire to be the supreme political powers in Northern India made the Chauhans attack the Chandellas of Mahoba-Khajuraho, the Bhadanakas of Sripatha or Bayana, the Parmaras of Malwa and Abu and Gahadavalas of Kanauj and Banaras. Prithvi Raj III not only attacked Paramadin Chandela but also attacked and defeated the Bhadanakas and perhaps also annexed some of their territory to his own dominions.

The Chauhans were often on hostile terms with the Parmaras of Malwa. As the Parmaras of Abu regarded the Chaulukyas their over-lords, an attack on then formed a part of the Chauhan-Chaulukya struggle for supermacy. As regards the Gahadavalas, tradition is unanimous in regarding Jai Chandra Gahadavala and Prithvi Raj III as bitter enemies. This hostility was increased on account of the abduction of Jai Chandra’s daughter, Samyogta, by Prithivi Raj III.

The Chaulukyas of Gujarat:

The Kingdom of the Chaulukyas of Gujarat was founded by Mulraja in the middle of the I Oth century. It continued to {ncrease in power and in the reigns of Jayasimha Siddharaja and Kumarapala, it became the strongest state of Western India comprising Gujarat, Saurashtra, Malwa, Abu, Nadol and Konkana. Kumarpala was succeeded by Ajayaraja who himself was succeeded by Mulraja II and Bhima II. The invasion of Muhammad Ghori in the reign of Mulraja II was repelled by his mother with the help of the feudatories.

Mulraja II ruled only for 12 months and during the reign of his successor Bhima II, his feudatories declared them independent and probably deprived him of his throne. Lavanaprasada and Viradhavala of Dholkala helped him to recover some of his lost power. It is true that Bhima II was a powerful ruler, but he did not realise the danger which he was facing, along with others from Muhammad Ghori. So long his own territory was not attacked, he was not prepared to join hands witlv others to fight against the Muslims. The result was that a very valuable opportunity was lost forever.

The Parmaras of Malwa:

The position of the Parmaras of Malwa was such that they had to fight against most of the Northern as well as Southern powers. Bhoja, the Great, appears to have tried to regenerate Hindu society. He also fought against the Muslims. It was probably his power which prevented Mahmi’d of Ghazni to return by the route he had taken to reach Somnath in 1024 A.D. There is no evidence to show that the successors of Bhoja continued to follow an anti-Muslim policy. In the last quarter of the 12th century, Malwa was not of much political consequence.

The Kalachuris:

Two of the branches of the Kalachuris ruled at Gorakhpur. Another branch ruled at Tripuri. Kokalla, its ruler, is said to have plundered the treasury of Turushkas. Another early ruler of Dahala who fought against the Muslims, was Gangeyadeva Vikramaditya who was in possession of Banaras in 1034 A.D., when Niyaltgin plundered it. Later on, the Kalachuris were engaged in a struggle for supremacy with the Chandellas on the one hand and the Parmaras on the other. Jayasimha Kalachuri came to the throne in about 1139 A.D. He is said to have repulsed an attack by Khusrau Malik, the Ghaznavide ruler. Between 1177 and 1180 A.D., Jayasimha was succeeded by Vijayasimha and the latter ruler at least up to 1195. Like his redecessors, he seems to have continued fighting against his neighbours.

Palas of Bengal:

Devapala of the Pala Dynasty ruled for a long period but as his successors were weak, his kingdom declined. The degenerate Palas had to fight against the Pratiharas of Kanauj and thereby brought sufferings for their people. Mahipala I ruled over Bengal in the first quarter of the 11th century and he was a contemporary of Mahmud of Ghazni. He was able to restore, at least partially, the fortunes of his family. However, a part of Bengal had already fallen into the hands of his vassals who nominally recognised him as their overlord. While Mahmud of Ghazni was attacking India, Bengal was threatened by Rajendra Chola and thus she suffered a lot.

The Deccan Kingdoms:

As in the North, a struggle for supremacy was being carried on in Southern India by the Chaulukyas of Kalyani, the Cholas of Kanchi and the Pandyas of Madura. The early Chaulukyas in the Deccan had fallen in the struggle for supremacy in 753 A.D. at the hands of the Rashtrakutas and the latter had given place to the later Chaulukyas in 973 A.D. Likewise, the Great Pallava Dynasty had fallen towards the end of the 9th century. The founder of the later Chaulukya Dynasty was Tailla II who claimed descent from the early Chaulukyas of Vatapi. He made Kalyani his Capital.

His successors had to fight constantly against the Cholas who rose to prominence under Rajaraja, the Great, who ruled from 985 to 1014 A.D. He was succeeded by Rajendra Chola who ruled up to 1044. Rajendra Chola was a great warrior and conqueror. He made extensive conquests in Southern and Northern India and was considered to be one of the greatest rulers of the country. While the Cholas and the Chaulukyas were involved in a bitter struggle in the South, India was attacked by the Muslims.

It is not correct to say that there was the lack of a patriotic sentiment among the people of India. It is well-known that women sold their ornaments to finance the war against the Muslims and the poor people worked harder to help the fight against the foreign invaders. There was no lack of chivalrous spirit among the Hindus. Women took pride in the fact that their husbands died in the battle field rather than came back defeated. Mothers were ashamed of their children who could not defend the motherland.

However, this patriotic spirit was of no avail on account of mutual rivalries and animosity. The Pratiharas were the enemies of the Muslims, but the Rashtrakutas were their friends. The Pratiharas were the bulwark against the Muslim invaders, but the tripartite struggle among the Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas and Palas resulted in the liquidation of the Kingdom of the Pratiharas and that made the task of the Muslim invaders easy.

Jayapala was a great patriot, but Anangapala was selfish and no wonder there was no effective resistance against the foreigners. It is stated that when Prithvi Raj Chauhan was defeated in the battle of Tarain, Jayachandra of Kanauj “started ceremonies and rejoicing; in every house thresholds were washed with butter and trumpets were blown.” Such an atmosphere was most congenial to the foreign invaders.

It is thus evident that India, on the eve of Mahmud of Ghazni’s invasion was split up into a number of small states involved in mutual warfare. What is still worse that these states were not willing to cooperate with each other in meeting common danger. This disunity amongst the states made the task of conquest by the Muslim invaders easy.