As regards the economic condition of the people in the Gupta period, the country had greatly prospered during the Gupta period and without economic prosperity there can be no progress.
The Gupta’s were benevolent monarchs and they established peace and order in the country. Without peace a country can never prosper. Agriculture trade and commerce greatly flourished and the Guptas too greatly encouraged them.
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During the Gupta period, agriculture was the basis of economic life. The main characteristic of the “Agriculture”, during the Gupta empire are given below :-
(I) Nature Of Land-Ownership
It is stated by many scholars that the state was the exclusive owner of land. From the inscriptions of the Gupta period dealing with land, it is clear that it was not easy to secure any fallow, uncultivated land or unsettled land for charitable purposes such as in the “Paharpur Copper plate Inscription” of Budhagupta, it is stated that the emperor acquired wealth as well as spiritual merit, when he made land grants.
This shows that Budhagupta was the owner of the land. Indirectly, official procedure also furnished the indirect evidence of the ownership of land. Further, land grants clearly indicate that the king had the supreme ownership of land otherwise he could not transfer comprehensive rights to the recipients.
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Even after the donation of land, the king reserved certain prerogatives over the land. The extent of intensive cultivation was so much that practically all land was brought under cultivation. The state provided security to cultivators. Waste lands was brought under cultivation.
Pasture land was also protected and increased. The grants of land consisted of small pieces taken from different plots in different village. Whenever, land was given to educational institutions, a provision was also made for labour and bullocks which were to be required for cultivation.
Thus it appears that though the land was, to all intents and purposes that of the peasants, the king claimed it theoretical ownership.
Agrahara grants were restricted to Brahmans. These grants were meant to be perpetual, in heritable and tax-free.
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The Nalanda and Gaya grants of Samudragupta are the earliest records that throw lights on the agrahara grants.
Devagrahara grants are concerned with donation to persons of various classes such as writers, merchants etc. for the purposes of repair and worship of temples. Sub infatuation Gupta grants from Bengal and eastern to alienate or grant his rents or lands to others.
But the Indore grants of Skandagupta in central authorises the grantee to enjoy the land, cultivate it and get it cultivated, so long as he observes the condition of the grants.
Illegitimate offspring of a Brahmin couple were counted as Shudras.
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(ii) Types Of Land
From the references of the Gupta period, land was divided into the following categories:- The first category of land was ‘cultivated land’ owned by the state and treated as “Crown land” or “Kshetra”.
Second, category of land was ‘fallow’ or ‘waste land’ also owned by the state was called ‘Khilaland.
Third category of land was ‘Jungle’ or ‘forest land’ owned by the state was called “Aprahata” land also owned by state. Fourth, category of land was the ‘habitable land’, called “Vastu” and fifth category of land was ‘pasture land’ called as “Gapata Sarah “.
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During the Gupta period, certain land-grant inscriptions, recorded the certain specific land tenure terms such as- ” Nivi-dharma”- means land endowment in perpetuity. This type of trusteeship was prevalent in many parts of North and Central India of the Gupta Empire.
“Nivi dharma aksayana” means that a perpetual endowment which a recipient could not alienate but could make use of the income accruing from it eternally. “Aprada dharma” means that a recipient has all rights to enjoy such a property but had no right to make a further gift of the same.
He can only enjoy the interest and income from the endowed land but not administrative right.
“Bhumichchhidranyayana” means rights of ownership as are acquired by a man making waste or barren land cultivable for the first time. He was free from liability to pay rait for it.
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“Nividharma aksayan”, “Aprada dharma” and “Bhumichchhidranyayana type of trusteeship were probably followed mainly in Eastern part of the empire. Therefore, they are very frequently mentioned in the inscriptions from Bengal.
From these trusteeship it is clear that in matters of the transfer of property, state sanction was always required. Even the endowments by private persons required the sanction of the state for validity by means of a royal charter which was granted according to the rule of “Bhumi Chchhidra” or Bhumichchhidranyayana”. The administration of the religious or charitable endowment being well organised.
(iv) Measurement Of Land
During the Gupta period land measurement is evident from the ‘Poona of Prabhavati Gupta’ and many other contemporary inscriptions. The land was measured by the “Padavarta” or “the turning round of a foot”, which determined the land assessment.
Location, and boundaries of individual plots were very carefully marked out and measured by the record-keepers and influential men of the locality as revealed from the “Paharpur Copper Plate”, “Ustapala” an officer who maintained the records of all land transactions in the district and village account and preserved the records of land.
(v) Transaction Of Land
During the Gupta period we have about ten references in Copper Plates related to the transaction of lands. It is a matter of surprise that the purchase of a piece of land were followed by certain procedure like these days. First, the application was sent to the headquarters of district where the land was situated, i.e. to the “pustapala.”
On the receipt of the application for purchase, the leading men and head of families (sailing and purchasing) apparently of the localities or village were informed. Possibly to enable them to offer their objections if any.
If there were no objections and after receiving the permission of the “Vishyapati” or District head, the “pustapala’s” department which was granted according to the rule of Bhumichhidra” land was sold.
(vi) Grants Of Land
During the Gupta period, there were two types of land grants such as- (A) Religious grants and (B) Secular grants.
(A) Religious Grants:
There are two types of religious grants such as –
(a) “Agrahara ” grants were restricted to the “Brahmans”. They were meant to perpetual, hereditary and tax free, accompanied with the assignment of all land revalue e.g. the Nalanda and Gaya grants of Samudragupta.
The main condition of these grants was that the revalue paying tenants should not be admitted to the privileged villages to harm the king’s revalue. These grants were declared to be liable to resumption for breach of certain such as no treason against the ruler not guilty of offences of thefts, adultery etc.
The king could terminate such grant any time usually it was not done so because that would have offended the grantees who were either influential “Brahmans” who commanded respect in the society. Thus, the “agrahara” grants underlined the privileged position of the Brahmans.
(b) “Devagrahara”: grants were those grants which were granted to the secular parties who administered them for religious purposes.
The records of the “Maharajas” of Uccakalpa dynasty of Central India shows that while one of their known land grants was made in favour of a Brahman, all the rest are concerned with donation to persons of various classes such as writers and merchants for the purposes of repair and worship of temples.
(B) Secular Grants:
The epigraphic evidence of land grants made to officers for their administrative and military services is lacking but such grant cannot to ruled out because certain designations of administrative official such as ‘bhagika’ and ‘bhogapatika’ and administrative units of the Gupta period suggest that land revenues were granted for remunerating government services.
The Uccakalpa dynasty made such land- grants even independently to secular parties e.g. two villages were bestowed as a mark of favour, in perpetuity with fiscal and administrative right upon a person called Pulindabhatta who seems to have been an aboriginal chief.
(vi) Beginning Of Sub-In-Feudation
The Gupta’s land-grants from Bengal and Eastern India do not authorise the beneficiary to alienate or grant his rents or lands to others. But during the reign of Skandagupta, Indore grants in Central India authorises the guarantee to enjoy the land, cultivate or get it cultivated, so long as he observes the conditions of the grants.
This leaves scope for creating tenants on the donated land. Perhaps, this provides the earliest epigraphic evidence of sub-in-feudation in fifth century A.D.
(vii) Position Of Peasants
The recipients of land grants in central and Western India were given the right to punish the thieves and maintain law and order from the fifth century A.D. onwards. With these rights fiscal rights obviously led to the oppression of peasants and other inhabitants of the village.
In Gujarat, Central India and even Orissa inscription from the sixth century A.D., mention that the peasants were often required to remain on their land even when it was granted to others.
Thus the position of independent peasants was undermined and they were reduced to serfs or semi-serfs. Peasants were also exploited by the right of such in feudation granted to recipients of land grants.
This practice of sub in feudation reduced permanent tenants of the position of tenants “at- will”. The position of tenants was also declined on account of the imposition of forced labour and several new taxes.
There are abundant references to agriculture and its every aspect in the sources of the Gupta period. An encouraging and co-operative nature of Gupta rulers greatly helped the expansion agriculture. Apart from the state and individual cultivators, “Brahmans”, “Buddhist” and “Jaina”, ” Samghas” brought waste lands under cultivation, when these were denoted to them as religious endowments.
Both “Narada” and “Brihaspati” understand the importance of agriculture. They laid down the rules for drastic punishment for the guilty of either damaging crops or stealing food grains. Cultivators was also asked to fence and protect their fields properly.
(viii) Land Holdings
During the Gupta period the agricultural holdings were probably small and were cultivated by the owner with the help of his family members. But, according to reference of “Gunaigarh plate”, indicated the eleven “patakas” of land-holding, where the owner hired the labour for its cultivation.
“Narada” and “Brihaspati” laid down the rules to govern the relations between land-owner and the hired labour. These rules were essentially meant to safeguard the interests of both the parties concerned.
(ix) Crops
Mostly agriculture depends upon the rains. “Brihatsamhita” of “Varahamihira” deals elaborately with meteorological observations providing guidelines to cultivators. According to him, there were three harvests at least in some