Since there was no other Indian language in which the educated elite could converse or communicate with one another, English language became the lingua franca of the English-educated classes in India.

Knowledge of English language had an additional advantage because it could provide employment in Government services as also opportunities in professions of lawyers, doctors, teachers, engineers etc. In the last decades of the 19th century a number of English language periodicals began to be published followed by the publication of newspapers in English language.

Another noticeable trend in the new Indian literature was that of emphasis on patriotism and the ardent hope for India’s Freedom. Writers in all Indian languages composed songs condemning British exploitation of India’s resources and wrote in praise of Indian history, culture and heritage.

Bengali Literature:

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The impact of Western thought and literature was noticeable in the field of Bengali literature. In Indo-English poetry two young Bengali women, Aru Duit and Tom wrote poems which were English in form though Indian in subject matter.

Toru’s collection of Ancient Ballads and Legends vindicated her talent of poetic utterance in English language. Romesh Chandra Dutt a great Congress leader and once President of the Indian National Congress published translations of the Ramayana and Mahabharata in English. Dutt’s book entitled Economic History of India in English, 2 Volumes received great recognition.

Hindi Literature:

During the 19th century Hindi literature also made notable progress. Instead of Braja Bhasha and Avadhi Hindi and Khadi Boli, Hindi became the popular medium of expression. Bharatendu Harish Chandra earned popularity as the father of modern Hindi literature.

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Prem Chand, Surya Kant Tripathi Nirla, Jaya Shankar Prasad, Ramchandra Shukla earned great reputation as Hindi writers. The writings of 20th century writers like Sumitra Nandan Pant, Mahadevi Verma, Ram Kumar Verma and Jainendra Kumar are read with great interest even today.

Urdu Literature:

Urdu poetry and literature also developed during the modern times. Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan who founded Mohammedan Educational Congress in 1886 played a notable role in encouraging Urdu writers to reorient Urdu literature along modern line. Poetical gatherings gave a new incentive to Urdu language.

Till the end of 19th century Urdu poetry was mainly a reflex of Persian poetry. The most notable figures were Asadullah Khan Ghalib, Altaf Hussain Panipati popularly known as Hali, Akbar Allahabadi, Brij Narain Chakbast, Pandit Ratannath Sarshar and Mohammad Iqbal.

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Tamil Literature:

Among the Tamil writers the names of Kuppuswami Mudaliyar, R. Krishnamurti, Chakravarti Rajagopalacharya and above all, Subrahmanya Bharti are the most conspicuous writers.

Telegu Literature:

The Telegu literature which had for centuries centered round religious themes was influenced by modern political and economic themes during the latter half of the 19th century. Rao Bahadur Viresh Lingam Pentulu, a poet, dramatist, novelist and critic became the trend setter of modern Telegu literature. Other outstanding writers were Nanduri Venkata Subbarao, M.O.Rama Rao and Garimella Satyanarayana, Satya Narayana’s poem ‘WeDon’t Want the White British Rule became very popular.’ Marathi Literature: In the 19th and 20th centuries the theme of Marathi literature centered round romanticism, liberalism and nationalism.

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The establishment of a number of universities in Marathi-speaking areas helped in the development of Marathi language as well as research in various fields. Punjabi Literature: A group of writers belonging to Singh Sabha became “very prominent in the latter half of the 19th century.

Their theme of discussion centered on socio-religious matters. Bhai Vir Singh, Rana Surat Singh, Puran Singh, Mohan Singh, Amrita Pritam, Kartar Singh Duggal, Balwant Singh Gargi and Rajendra Singh Bedi were the most outstanding personalities in the list of modern Punjabi writers.